Jasa cafe design modern murah berpengalaman

Apakah Anda punya rencana ingin membuat cafe yang unik dan menarik? tentu anda akan membutuhkan jasa desain interior cafe yang nantinya bisa membantu mewujudkan bentuk cafe yang tepat yang Anda inginkan. Terlampir contoh design cafe dalam resolusi rendah, desain dibuat sesuai sketsa layout yang dikirimkan via whatsApp. Web ini dibuat untuk menjembatani bagi Anda yang sedang membutuhkan jasa gambar online desain 3d dengan prosedur yang mudah dan menghemat waktu Anda dalam melakukan pemesanan desain, karena Anda tidak perlu datang ke lokasi kami, cukup dengan kirim data via WA ke 081916200296 atau email ke arusha.st@gmail.com, desain yang anda butuhkan sudah sesuai keinginan anda. Mudah, tidak sudah dan tidak akan capek. Tinggal tunggu hasil desain, setelah data2 yang kami perlukan sudah dikirim. Kami memberikan jasa desain online untuk pembuatan segala macam desain.

Jasa desain 3d interior bedroom hotel murah berkualitas

Bisa bantu buatkan desain interior 3d untuk renovasi hotel yang bagus, menarik tanpa mengeluarkan banyak biaya renovasi, karena yang sekarang mau saya rubah konsepnya. Saya ingin rombak tapi usahakan dibuatkan desain dengan biaya yang tidak terlalu besar renovasinya. Kondisi saat ini sudah kurang menarik seperti foto lokasi yang saya lampirkan. Mohon bisa bantu buatkan desain 3d nya. Untuk detail ukuran sudah saya lampirkan cad nya. Tolong dapat segera diproses desainnya, karena sekarang sudah mulai berbenah. Oke pak, segera diproses, 3 hari kedepan saya kirim hasilnya. Kami siap membantu dan menyelesaikan permintaan desain anda, dengan konsep dari kita juga sesuai keinginan anda. Contoh contoh desain interior 3d bisa dilihat banyak di search google image dengan keyword arusha desain, akan terlihat banyak contohnya sebagai bahan referensi.

Jasa desain 3D kitchenset cantik murah berpengalaman

Contoh gambar online permintaan design renovasi 3D kitchenset cantik dan menarik. Kami akan selalu memberikan jasa gambar online untuk pembuatan desain 3D kitchenset cantik yang sudah berpengalaman. Kami telah banyak mengerjakan berbagai project - project design taman baik dari perorangan maupun perusahaan. Banyak pelanggan kami yang sampai saat ini masih mempercayakan kepada kami untuk selalu dibuatkan desain 3D kitchenset cantik sesuai permintaan customer maupun klien. Untuk data data yang diperlukan adalah sketsa coretan tangan, foto lokasi, referensi gambar/foto acuan yang diinginkan. Kami, akan membantu dan menyelesaikan permintaan desain anda, dengan konsep dari kita maupun menerjemahkan sketsa tangan, foto2, gambar yang anda kirimkan untuk kita tuangkan ke dalam gambar Desain 3D kitchenset cantik sesuai keinginan anda. Proses Mudah, Cepat dan Hasil Memuaskan. 3-5hari anda sudah dapat melihat hasilnya. Cukup dengan SMS/WA ke 081916200296 dan email ke arusha.st@gmail.com. Thanks.

Jasa design 3d kamar klasik unik berkualitas

Kami menyediakan jasa desain dan memberikan solusi gambar dengan menawarkan jasa pembuatan desain interior kamar anda, baik desain 3D maupun 2D perabot kamar lengkap secara online via WA, sehingga tidak akan memakan banyak waktu anda yang terbuang. Terlampir contoh desain 3d kamar klasik sesuai permintaan klien. Cukup Wa ke no 081916200296 mengenai permintaan desainnya apa, kirim sketsa denah dan ukurannya, 3-5hari saya kirim hasilnya. Kalau untuk desain renovasi kamar, data yang perlu disampaikan adalah foto lokasi dan kondisi saat ini. Kami sudah terbiasa membuat interior kamar dengan berbagai konsep, mulai dari design kamar tamu, desain kamar tidur, gambar kamar mandi, desain kamar kos, desain kamar tidur remaja, desain kamar tidur ukuran kecil, desain kamar tidur anak, desain kamar tidur unik, dll.

Preview desain apartment 15 lantai harga murah berpengalaman

Preview desain dari pembicaraan via WA, mengenai order desain apartment 15 lantai, dengan data pendukung seperti sketsa denah, gambaran kondisi foto lokasi, dan contoh serta konsep yang diinginkan. Biaya desain hanya 550ribu/view, bisa revisi 2x free. Hasil yang di dapat file jpeg resolusi tinggi diprint tidak pecah atau buram.

Proses Mudah, Cepat dan Hasil Memuaskan. 2-4hari anda sudah dapat melihat hasilnya. Cukup dengan SMS/WA ke 081916200296 dan email ke arusha.st@gmail.com, desain yang anda butuhkan sudah sesuai keinginan anda.

Preview design 3d interior desain Kitchen Set Mini Bar Dapur

Anda memerlukan jasa desain 3d interior design Kitchen Set Mini Bar untuk dapur, Kami siap membantu anda untuk mewujudkan desain yang anda inginkan, secara online. Cukup dengan WA ke 081916200296 atau Email ke arusha.st@gmail.com , desain yang anda butuhkan sudah sesuai keinginan anda. kirim aja data2 meliputi denah/sketsa ukuran, foto lokasi, refrensi/contoh acuan kemudian kebutuhan ruangannya apa aja, jangan lupa konsep yang diinginkan seperti apa tuangkan dalam email secara detail biar dapat segera diproses. Diusahakan 2-3 hari sudah bisa lihat hasilnya.

Jasa gambar preview desain interior apartemen murah berpengalaman

Blog jasa design interior apartemen secara online ini akan memberi kemudahan dan menghemat waktu Anda dalam order gambar desain3d, karena anda tidak perlu datang ke lokasi cukup dengan SMS/WA ke 081916200296 dan email ke arusha.st@gmail.com, desain yang anda butuhkan sudah sesuai keinginan anda. Mudah, tidak pakai ribet dan tidak pakai capek. Setelah kirim data via email tinggal tunggu hasil designnya. Kami selalu siap memberikan jasa design online untuk pembuatan gambar desain 2d dan 3d interior apartemen dengan harga murah serta berpengalaman. Kami telah banyak mengerjakan berbagai project - project design baik dari perorangan maupun perusahaan. Banyak pelanggan kami yang sampai saat ini masih mempercayakan kepada kami untuk selalu dibuatkan design 2d dan 3d interior exterior apartemen sesuai permintaan klien. Untuk data data yang harus dikirim adalah sketsa coretan tangan, referensi gambar/foto acuan yang disukai. Kami, akan membantu dan menyelesaikan permintaan desain anda, dengan konsep dari kita maupun menerjemahkan sketsa tangan, foto2, gambar yang anda kirimkan untuk kita tuangkan ke dalam gambar design sesuai keinginan anda. Terlampir contohnya.

Paket desain murah gambar ruko perumahan cluster brosur marketing

Pak tolong dibuatkan side plain, 6 buah ruko didepan jalan (4,5 x 10m) Ditengah2 pintu masuk ke cluster Didalam dibuat jalan 6 m  sdh termasuk saluran air. Type rumah tanah kebanyakan 72m dan beberapa aja 90m Lebar rumah rata2 6m. Ada fasum:kolam renang ukuran 6x10 m dan Taman secukupnya. Kira2 harganya berapa ya?

Oke pak, setelah kita review datanya, untuk biaya desain siteplan 2d 250rb/lbr A3 biaya desain 3d eksterior 550rb/view atau paket pradesain perumahan murah 2.5jt bisa untuk brosur, marketing, siteplan 2d, 1 bird view kelihatan keseluruhan kawasan, 1 view ruko, 1 view rumah tipe 72, 1 view rumah tipe 90, denah berwarna tipe 72 dan 90.

Hitungan biaya desain 3d taman wisata bermain luas asri menarik

Selamat pagi om Arusha, mau nanya tentang hitungan biaya design perview jadi berapa om? saya lihat di website arusha perview 550rb untuk exterior ya? desainnya bagus-bagus, saya minta dibuatkan desainnya dong. Saya rencana mau buat area taman yang luas asri dan menarik, terlampir saya kirimkan sketsa layout dan foto lokasi.Bagaimana prosedurnya pemesanan desainnya? thx. Oke pak bisa, o ya semua desain kita hanya via online. nanti desain kita buatkan dulu, baru transfer via bca. Untuk desain 3D eksterior biaya Rp550rbu per view/gbr. utk desain 3d interior biaya 450ribu/view/gbr dengan maksimal revisi 2x free, setelahnya kena charge 150ribu. untuk revisi sangat sederhana, kalau msh ada yg blm sesuai, tinggal coret2 di desain yg sy kirim kasih note/keterangan maunya spt apa. kirim balik utk kita revisi. setelah harga deal akan kami kirim preview gambar awal (sesuai dengan permintaan desain yang diajukan) dengan maksimal pengerjaan 2-3hari. Untuk pengerjaan desain dibutuhkan data : sketsa denah lokasi(boleh coret2an tangan), foto lokasi, referensi desain, konsep yang diinginkan, semakin banyak data semakin baik. Hasil desain kita kirimkan dalam resolusi rendah, setelah transfer biaya baru resolusi tinggi kita kirimkan.

Jasa Desain Toilet wanita dan pria di gedung mall dengan partisi toilet kaca sand blast mewah

Anda sedang membutuhkan Jasa Desain Interior Toilet wanita dan pria dengan partisi toilet kaca sand blast yang menarik berkesan mewah dengan harga yang murah. Kami, Arusha Design siap membantu anda untuk mewujudkan desain yang anda inginkan dengan cepat dan harga relatif murah, tanpa perlu bertatap muka, tanpa perlu bertemu langsung. Cukup dengan SMS WA ke 081916200296 dan email ke arusha.st@gmail.com, desain yang anda butuhkan sudah sesuai keinginan anda.Terlampir contoh desain toilet wanita di gedung mall yang pernah kita buat.

Jasa design tata ruang warung bakso minimalis menarik modern

Butuh Desain tata ruang warung bakso yang minimalis menarik modern, konsep desain warung bakso unik dengan harga murah dan sudah berpengalaman? Cukup dengan SMS WA ke 081916200296 dan email ke arusha.st@gmail.com, desain yang anda butuhkan sudah sesuai keinginan anda. Kami menerima jasa pembuatan desain online gambar eksterior maupun interior warung baso baik bikin baru maupun renovasi menyeluruh. Kami siap membantu dan menyelesaikan permintaan desain anda, dengan konsep dari kita maupun menerjemahkan sketsa tangan, denah, foto2, gambar yang anda kirimkan untuk kita tuangkan ke dalam gambar Desain 3D sesuai keinginan anda. Dengan harga 550ribu/view dan bisa revisi 2x free, anda sudah bias melihat hasil desain yang anda inginkan. Terlampir contoh desain interior warung baso minimalis modern hasil karya kami.

Jasa desain renovasi cafe vintage minim biaya

Sore arusha, saya ada rencana mau rubah interior cafe saya, kira2 bisa tidak pak. Usahakan minim biaya renovasi ya pak. Ini saya lampirkan foto ruangan existing saat ini. kalau bisa di rubah mengikuti seperti di layout yang saya kirim. Cafe yang saya inginkan dengan konsep vintage yang sangat digemari banyak orang yang membuat pengunjungnya betah berlama-lama. Iya bisa pak, sudah sering bikin. Biaya desain 450ribu/view revisi bisa 2x free. kirim aja datanya ke ke arusha.st@gmail.com, desain yang anda butuhkan sudah sesuai keinginan anda. Atau via WA ke no 081916200296.

Jasa design cafe taman asri unik dan menarik

Contoh preview desain 3d gambar cafe taman outdoor yang pernah kita bikin dengan permintaan konsep asri, unik dan menarik. Anda perlu jasa desain cafe taman? Percayakan gambar cafe taman anda kepada kami, dalam 2-3 hari anda sudah dapat lihat hasil desainnya, tanpa perlu datang untuk menemui kami. Cukup dengan SMS, WA ke 081916200296 dan email ke arusha.st@gmail.com, gambar cafe taman yang anda butuhkan sudah sesuai keinginan anda. Kami, akan membantu dan menyelesaikan permintaan desain cafe taman anda, dengan konsep dari kita maupun menerjemahkan sketsa tangan, denah, foto2, gambar yang anda kirimkan untuk kita tuangkan ke dalam gambar Desain 3D sesuai keinginan anda. Proses Mudah, Cepat dan Hasil Memuaskan. Dengan harga 550ribu/view dan bisa revisi 2x free, Anda sudah dapat melihat bentuk jadi gambar cafe taman yang anda inginkan. Sehingga tidak akan memakan banyak biaya dan waktu yang lama untuk mengetahui hasil aktualnya. Terlampir contoh desain cafe taman yang pernah kita buat.

Jasa renovasi desain online kamar tidur utama menjadi lebih menarik dan mewah

Terlampir foto lokasi dan kondisi perabot yg akan kita renovasi. Tolong dibuat design yg bagus dan lebih menarik untuk kamar tidur utama yang mewah. Contoh model yang diinginkan sudah saya lampirkan, mohon untuk diaplikasikan di layout yg telah saya kirimkan. Oke, segera kita proses. Selesai langsung kita kirimkan. Saat ini Kami telah banyak mendesign dan berpengalaman mengerjakan project - project Design kamar tidur baik dari perorangan maupun perusahaan. Banyak pelanggan kami yang sampai saat ini masih mempercayakan kepada kami untuk selalu dibuatkan konsep desain 3d kamar tidur. Proses Mudah, Cepat dan Hasil Memuaskan. 2-3hari anda sudah dapat melihat hasilnya. Cukup dengan SMS ke 081916200296 dan email ke arusha.st@gmail.com, desain yang anda butuhkan sudah sesuai keinginan anda. Terlampir preview kamar tidur utama, mohon untuk transfer biaya desainnya sebesar 400ribu agar resolusi tinggi dapat segera saya buatkan agar bisa direview lebih detail. thanks, arusha.

Jasa design online toko sepatu mewah murah berpengalaman

Apakah saat ini Anda sedang membutuhkan jasa design toko sepatu dengan konsep kalangan remaja nuansa simple minimalis mewah dengan harga murah serta sudah berpengalaman, hubungi kami Arusha Desain. Kami selalu siap memberikan jasa desain online untuk pembuatan desain interior toko maupun bangunan eksterior toko dengan segala konsep. Kami sudah banyak mengerjakan berbagai project - project Design baik dari perorangan maupun perusahaan. Banyak pelanggan kami yang sampai saat ini masih mempercayakan kepada kami untuk selalu dibuatkan konsep desain 3d sesuai permintaan customer maupun klien. Dengan biaya desain interior toko hanya 450ribu/view bisa revisi 2x free untuk pengerjaan kurang lebih 2-3hari setelah data lengkap terkirim. Untuk data data yang harus dikirim adalah denah atau sketsa coretan tangan, ukuran lahan, foto lokasi, konsep yang diinginkan, referensi gambar/foto acuan yang disukai. Kami, akan membantu dan menyelesaikan permintaan desain anda, dengan konsep dari kita maupun menerjemahkan sketsa tangan, denah, foto2, gambar yang anda kirimkan untuk kita tuangkan ke dalam gambar Desain 3D sesuai keinginan anda. Proses Mudah, Cepat dan Hasil Memuaskan. 2-3hari anda sudah dapat melihat hasilnya. Cukup dengan SMS/WA ke 081916200296 dan email ke arusha.st@gmail.com, desain yang anda butuhkan sudah sesuai keinginan anda.

Jasa design online pembuatan desain interior ruang keluarga livingroom

Kami Arusha Desain adalah penyedia jasa design secara online untuk pembuatan desain interior ruang keluarga livingroom dengan segala konsep sesuai yang anda inginkan, Kami selalu siap memberikan masukan dan menyelesaikan permintaan desain anda baik bikin interior baru maupun renovasi, konsep bisa dari kita maupun menerjemahkan sketsa tangan, denah, foto2, gambar yang anda kirimkan untuk kita tuangkan ke dalam gambar Desain 3D sesuai keinginan anda. Dengan harga 450ribu/view dan bisa revisi 2x free, Anda sudah dapat melihat bentuk jadi counter yang anda inginkan. Sehingga tidak akan memakan banyak biaya dan waktu yang lama untuk mengetahui hasil aktualnya. Proses Mudah, Cepat dan Hasil Memuaskan. 2-3hari anda sudah dapat melihat hasilnya. Cukup dengan SMS/WA ke 081916200296 dan email ke arusha.st@gmail.com, desain yang anda butuhkan sudah sesuai keinginan anda.

Jasa design Ruko Pojok Minimalis Mewah 2 Lantai Biaya Murah Berpengalaman

Kami melayani jasa pembuatan desain bangunan design Ruko Pojok Minimalis Mewah 2 Lantai Biaya Murah Berpengalaman. Kami, akan membantu dan menyelesaikan permintaan desain anda, dengan konsep dari kita maupun menerjemahkan sketsa tangan, denah, foto2, gambar yang anda kirimkan untuk kita tuangkan ke dalam gambar Desain 3D sesuai keinginan anda. Dengan harga 400ribu/view dan bisa revisi 2x free, Anda sudah dapat melihat bentuk jadi interior yang anda inginkan. Sehingga tidak akan memakan banyak biaya dan waktu yang lama untuk mengetahui hasil aktualnya. Proses Mudah, Cepat dan Hasil Memuaskan. 2-3hari anda sudah dapat melihat hasilnya. Cukup dengan SMS/WA ke 081916200296 dan email ke arusha.st@gmail.com, desain yang anda butuhkan sudah sesuai keinginan anda.

Contoh-contoh desain yang telah dibuat bisa dilihat di:

www.design3dx.com

www.design3dmax.com

www.designer3dmax.com

www.interior3dmax.com

www.desain3d.com

www.senidesain.com

www.pabrikdesain.com

www.jasa-gambar-desain.blogspot.co.id

www.jasa-desain-gambar-murah.blogspot.co.id

www.jasa-desain3d.blogspot.co.id

www.jasa-desain-ruko.blogspot.co.id

www.jasa-desain-apartemen.blogspot.co.id

www.jasadesainer3d.blogspot.co.id

www.desain-interior-eksterior-rumah.blogspot.co.id

www.jasadesainrumah3d.blogspot.co.id

www.jasa-interior-3d.blogspot.co.id

www.jasa-interior-eksterior.blogspot.co.id

www.jasa-desain-interior-rumah.blogspot.co.id

www.interior-rumah-eksterior.blogspot.co.id

www.desain-rumah3d.blogspot.co.id

www.desain-rumah-ruko.blogspot.co.id

www.jasadesain-rumah-murah.blogspot.co.id

www.arsyananda-desain.blogspot.co.id

www.autocadline.blogspot.co.id

Jasa desain interior dapur murah berpengalaman

Contoh desain interior ruang dapur keren, elegan, cantik, modern, kami Arusha Desain menawarkan kepada Anda jasa gambar desain segala macam konsep dapur dengan harga murah dan berpengalaman. Biaya desain 400ribu/view. Revisi 2x free. Untuk pembuatan desain data2 yg dibutuhkan denah+ukuran+foto lokasi+refrensi gambar/foto acuan(kalau ada). Proses Mudah, Cepat dan Hasil Memuaskan. 2-3hari anda sudah dapat melihat hasilnya. Cukup dengan SMS ke 081916200296 dan email ke arusha.st@gmail.com, desain yang anda butuhkan sudah sesuai keinginan anda. 

Contoh-contoh desain yang telah dibuat bisa dilihat di:
www.design3dx.com
www.design3dmax.com
www.designer3dmax.com
www.interior3dmax.com
www.desain3d.com
www.senidesain.com
www.pabrikdesain.com
www.jasa-gambar-desain.blogspot.co.id
www.jasa-desain-gambar-murah.blogspot.co.id
www.jasa-desain3d.blogspot.co.id
www.jasa-desain-ruko.blogspot.co.id
www.jasa-desain-apartemen.blogspot.co.id
www.jasadesainer3d.blogspot.co.id
www.desain-interior-eksterior-rumah.blogspot.co.id
www.jasadesainrumah3d.blogspot.co.id
www.jasa-interior-3d.blogspot.co.id
www.jasa-interior-eksterior.blogspot.co.id
www.jasa-desain-interior-rumah.blogspot.co.id
www.interior-rumah-eksterior.blogspot.co.id
www.desain-rumah3d.blogspot.co.id
www.desain-rumah-ruko.blogspot.co.id
www.jasadesain-rumah-murah.blogspot.co.id
www.arsyananda-desain.blogspot.co.id
www.autocadline.blogspot.co.id
www.solidworksurface.blogspot.co.id
www.spotcolordesign.blogspot.co.id
www.illustratorgradient.blogspot.co.id
www.photoshoptonality.blogspot.co.d
 

Jasa Gambar Proyek Apartemen Plafond Sloop Springker Smooth

Selamat malam pak Arusha, tolong dibikin lagi gambar 3D yang ini untuk proyek apartemen dan ini udah sy lampirkan design gambarnya dan gambar posisi ruang apartemen yg sy foto. atas bantuannya sy ucapkan terima kasih, sekalian ama plafon yang desain udh sy email kmrn dan warnanya tlg dibikin sesuai contoh warna yang sy krm pak. plafonnya sesuai desain saya soalnya ada springker dan smooth yang ga boleh ditutupin ato dihalangin. Ini saya lampirkan lagi contoh plafon kayak sloop yang dibentangin diatas ranjang dengan hiasan lampu LED dan halogen seperti contoh foto yang saya kirim dibawah ini. ‎Ntar sy lampirkan contoh warnanya yang glossy. 

Kami, akan selalu membantu dan menyelesaikan permintaan desain anda, baik dengan konsep dari kita maupun menerjemahkan sketsa tangan, denah,  foto2, gambar yang anda kirimkan untuk kita tuangkan ke dalam gambar Desain 3D sesuai keinginan anda. Dengan harga 400ribu/view dan bisa revisi 2x free, Anda sudah dapat melihat bentuk jadi interior yang anda inginkan. Sehingga  tidak akan memakan banyak biaya dan waktu yang lama untuk mengetahui hasil aktualnya.
Proses Mudah, Cepat dan Hasil Memuaskan. 2-3hari anda sudah dapat melihat hasilnya.
Cukup dengan SMS ke 081916200296 dan email ke arusha.st@gmail.com, desain yang anda butuhkan sudah sesuai keinginan anda.
Contoh-contoh desain yang telah dibuat bisa dilihat di:
www.design3dx.com
www.design3dmax.com
www.designer3dmax.com
www.interior3dmax.com
www.desain3d.com
www.senidesain.com
www.pabrikdesain.com
www.jasa-gambar-desain.blogspot.com
www.jasa-desain-gambar-murah.blogspot.com
www.jasa-desain-apartemen.blogspot.com
www.jasa-desain-interior-rumah.blogspot.com
www.jasa-interior-eksterior.blogspot.com
www.jasa-interior-3d.blogspot.com
www.jasadesainrumah3d.blogspot.com
www.jasadesain-rumah-murah.blogspot.com
www.interior-rumah-eksterior.blogspot.com
www.desain-rumah3d.blogspot.com
www.arsyananda-desain.blogspot.com
www.interior-rumah-eksterior.blogspot.com
www.jasa-desain-ruko.blogspot.com
www.desain-rumah-ruko.blogspot.com
www.jasadesainer3d.blogspot.com
www.jasa-desain3d.blogspot.com

WHAT IS DESIGN FOR MANUFACTURE AND ASSEMBLY?

In this text we shall assume that "to manufacture" refers to the manufacturing of the individual component parts of a product or assembly and that "to assemble" refers to the addition or joining of parts to form the completed product. This means that for the purposes of this text, assembly will not be considered a manufacturing process in the same sense that machining, molding, etc., are manufacturing processes. Hence, the term "design for manufacture" (or DFM) means the design for ease of manufacture of the collection of parts that will form the product after assembly and "design for assembly" (or DFA) means the design of the product for ease of assembly. Thus, "design for manufacture and assembly" (DFMA) is a combination of DFA and DFM. DFMA is used for three main activities: 1. As the basis for concurrent engineering studies to provide guidance to the design team in simplifying the product structure, to reduce manufacturing and assembly costs, and to quantify the improvements. 2. As a benchmarking tool to study competitors' products and quantify manufacturing and assembly difficulties. 3. As a should-cost tool to help negotiate suppliers contracts. The development of the original DFA method stemmed from earlier work in the 1960s on automatic handling [1]. A group technology classification system was developed to catalogue automatic handling solutions for small parts [2]. It became apparent that the classification system could also help designers to design parts that would be easy to handle automatically. In the mid-1970s the U.S. National Science Foundation (NSF) awarded a substantial grant to extend this approach to the general areas of DFM and DFA. Essentially, this meant classifying product design features that significantly effect assembly times and manufacturing costs and quantifying these effects. At the same time, the University of Salford in England was awarded a government grant to study product design for automatic assembly. As part of the study, various designs of domestic gas flow meters were compared. These meters all worked on the same principal and had the same basic components. However, it was found that their manufacturability varied widely and that the least manufacturable design had six times the labor content of the best design. Figure 1.1 shows five different solutions for the same attachment problem taken from the gas flow meters studied. It can be seen that, on the left, the simplest method for securing the housing consisted of a simple snap fit. In the examples on the right, not only does the assembly time increase, but both the number and cost of parts increases. This illustrates the two basic principles of design for ease of assembly of a product: reduce the number of assembly operations by reducing the number of parts and make the assembly operations easier to perform. The DFA time standards for small mechanical products resulting from the NSF-supported research were first published in handbook form in the late 1970s, and the first successes resulting from the application of DFA in industry were reported in an article in Assembly Engineering [3] .In the article, Sidney Liebson, corporate director of manufacturing for Xerox and a long-time supporter of our research, suggested that "DFA would save his company hundreds of millions of dollars over the next ten years." The article generated intense interest in U.S. industry. 

Marcel Dekker, Inc.
270 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016
tel: 212-696-9000; fax: 212-685-4540
Eastern Hemisphere Distribution
Marcel Dekker AG
Hutgasse 4, Postfach 812, CH-4001 Basel, Switzerland
tel: 41-61-261-8482; fax: 41-61-261-8896
World Wide Web
http: //www.dekker. com
 

Sectioning or cross-hatching lines

When you go to a museum, you often see artefacts that have been cut up. For example, to illustrate how a petrol engine works, the cylinder block can be cut in half and the cut faces are invariably painted red. In engineering drawing, cross-hatching is the equivalent of painting something red. It is used to show the internal details of parts which otherwise would become too complex to show or dimension. The cross-hatch lines are usually equi-spaced and, for small parts, cover the whole of the 'red' cut area. They are normally positioned at 45 ~ but if this is awkward because the part itself or a surface of it is at 45 ~ , the hatching lines can be at another angle. Logical angles like 0 ~ 30 ~ 60 ~ or 90 ~ are to be preferred to peculiar ones like 18 ~ (say). If sectioned parts are adjacent to each other, it is normal to cross hatch in different orientations (+ and -45 ~ or if the same orientation is used, to use double lines or to stagger the lines. Examples of single and double + and --45 ~ cross-hatching lines are shown in the vice assembly drawing in Figure 3.1. An example of staggered cross-hatching is shown in the inverted plan drawing of the movable jaw in Figure 3.2. If large areas are to be sectioned, there is no particular need to have the cross-hatching lines covering the whole of the component but rather the outside regions and those regions which contain details. When sections are taken of long parts such as ribs, webs, spokes of wheels and the like, it is normally the convention to leave them unsectioned and therefore no cross-hatch lines are used. The reason for this is that the section is usually of a long form such that if it were hatched it would give a false impression of rigidity and strength. In the same way it is not normal to cross hatch parts like nuts and bolts and washers when they are sectioned. These are normally shown in their full view form unless, for example, a bolt has some specially machined internal features such that it is not an off-the-shelf item. Example of threads that are not cross-hatched can be seen in the vice assembly drawing in Figure 3.1.

Engineering Drawing for Manufacture
by Brian Griffiths
· ISBN: 185718033X
· Pub. Date: February 2003
· Publisher: Elsevier Science & Technology Books

Cams and gears

A cam is generally a disc or a cylinder mounted on a rotating shaft, and it gives a special motion to a follower, by direct contact. The cam profile is determined by the required follower motion and the design of the type of follower. The motions of cams can be considered to some extent as alternatives to motions obtained from linkages, but they are generally easier to design, and the resulting actions can be accurately predicted. If, for example, a follower is required to remain stationary, then this is achieved by a concentric circular arc on the cam. For a specified velocity or acceleration, the displacement of the follower can easily be calculated, but these motions are very difficult to arrange precisely with linkages. Specialist cam-manufacturers computerize design data and, for a given requirement, would provide a read-out with cam dimensions for each degree, minute, and second of camshaft rotation. When used in high-speed machinery, cams may require to be balanced, and this becomes easier to perform if the cam is basically as small as possible. A well-designed cam system will involve not only consideration of velocity and acceleration but also the effects of out-of-balance forces, and vibrations. Suitable materials must be selected to withstand wear and the effect of surface stresses. Probably the most widely used cam is the plate cam, with its contour around the circumference. The line of action of the follower is usually either vertical or parallel to the camshaft, and Fig. 24.1 shows several examples. Examples are given later of a cylindrical or drum cam, where the cam groove is machined around the circumference, and also a face cam, where the cam groove is machined on a flat surface. 

Manual of
Engineering Drawing
Second edition
Colin H Simmons
I.Eng, FIED, Mem ASME.
Engineering Standards Consultant
Member of BS. & ISO Committees dealing with
Technical Product Documentation specifications
Formerly Standards Engineer, Lucas CAV.
Dennis E Maguire
CEng. MIMechE, Mem ASME, R.Eng.Des, MIED
Design Consultant
Formerly Senior Lecturer, Mechanical and
Production Engineering Department, Southall College
of Technology
City & Guilds International Chief Examiner in
Engineering Drawing

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JASA DESAIN RUMAH MURAH: Jasa Gambar Desain Solusi Bangun Renovasi Rumah

JASA DESAIN RUMAH MURAH: Jasa Gambar Desain Solusi Bangun Renovasi Rumah

Design: selecting materials for eco-design

For selection of materials in environmentally responsible design we must first
ask: which phase of the life cycle of the product under consideration makes the
largest impact on the environment? The answer guides the effective use of the
data in the way shown in Figure 20.12.
The material production phase
If material production consumes more energy than the other phases of life, it
becomes the first target. Drink containers provide an example: they consume
materials and energy during material extraction and container production, but,
apart from transport and possible refrigeration, not thereafter. Here, selecting
materials with low embodied energy and using less of them are the ways forward.
Figure 20.7 made the point that large civil structures—buildings, bridges,
roads—are material intensive. For these the embodied energy of the materials
is the largest commitment. For this reason architects and civil engineers concern
themselves with embodied energy as well as the thermal efficiency of their
structures.
The product manufacture phase
The energy required to shape a material is usually much less than that to create
it in the first place. Certainly it is important to save energy in production. But
higher priority often attaches to the local impact of emissions and toxic waste
during manufacture, and this depends crucially on local circumstances. Clean
manufacture is the answer here.

Materials
Engineering, Science,Processing and Design
Michael Ashby, Hugh Shercliff and David Cebon
University of Cambridge,
UK
AMSTERDAM • BOSTON • HEIDELBERG • LONDON • NEW YORK • OXFORD
PARIS • SAN DIEGO • SAN FRANCISCO • SINGAPORE • SYDNEY • TOKYO
Butterworth-Heinemann is an imprint of Elsevier

Strength and toughness

Strength and toughness? Why both? What’s the difference?
Strength, when speaking of a material, is its resistance to plastic flow. Think of
a sample loaded in tension. Increase the stress until dislocations sweep right
across the section, meaning the sample just yields, and you measure the initial
yield strength. Strength generally increases with plastic strain because of work
hardening, reaching a maximum at the tensile strength. The area under the whole
stress–strain curve up to fracture is the work of fracture. We’ve been here
already—it was the subject of Chapter 5.
Toughness is the resistance of a material to the propagation of a crack. Suppose
that the sample of material contained a small, sharp crack, as in Figure 8.1(a).
The crack reduces the cross-section A and, since stress σ is F/A, it increases the
stress. But suppose the crack is small, hardly reducing the section, and the sample
is loaded as before. A tough material will yield, work harden and absorb
energy as before—the crack makes no significant difference. But if the material
is not tough (defined in a moment) then the unexpected happens; the crack suddenly
propagates and the sample fractures at a stress that can be far below the
yield strength. Design based on yield is common practice. The possibility of fracture
at stresses below the yield strength is really bad news. And it has happened, on
spectacular scales, causing boilers to burst, bridges to collapse, ships to break
in half, pipelines to split and aircraft to crash. We get to that in Chapter 10.
So what is the material property that measures the resistance to the propagation
of a crack? And just how concerned should you be if you read in the paper
that cracks have been detected in the track of the railway on which you commute
or in the pressure vessels of the nuclear reactor of the power station a few
miles away? If the materials are tough enough you can sleep in peace. But what
is ‘tough enough’?
This difference in material behavior, once pointed out, is only too familiar.
Buy a CD, a pack of transparent folders or even a toothbrush: all come in perfect
transparent packaging. Try to get them out by pulling and you have a problem:
the packaging is strong. But nick it with a knife or a key or your teeth and
suddenly it tears easily. That’s why the makers of shampoo sachets do the nick
for you. What they forget is that the polymer of the sachet becomes tougher
when wet, and that soapy fingers can’t transmit much force. But they had the
right idea.

Materials
Engineering, Science,
Processing and Design
Michael Ashby, Hugh Shercliff and David Cebon
University of Cambridge,
UK
AMSTERDAM • BOSTON • HEIDELBERG • LONDON • NEW YORK • OXFORD
PARIS • SAN DIEGO • SAN FRANCISCO • SINGAPORE • SYDNEY • TOKYO
Butterworth-Heinemann is an imprint of Elsevier

Technology Push and Market Pull

Many radical product innovations seem to be based on new
technology. For example, pocket calculators, personal computers
and many other new electronics-based products were made possible
by the development of the microprocessor chip. However, as
we have seen in the success and failure stories, people's willingness
to buy new products is the ultimate deciding factor; if people do
not want the product then it fails. There are also many examples of
new product development that do not depend on new technology
but on recognizing what people want or need, whether that is
recyclable packaging, stacking hi-fi systems or dish washers, etc.
There are therefore two strong aspects to new product devel
opment: the push that comes from new technology and the pull of
market needs.
These two aspects are usually called technology push and
market pull. Technology itself, of course, does not do any pushing;
that comes from the developers and suppliers of the new technology,
and from the makers of the new products. In practice, a lot
of new product development is influenced by a combination of
both technology push and market pull.
Many companies prefer to work on the market-pull model,
using market research to identify customers' wants and needs. The
technology-push view, on the other hand, emphasizes that
innovations can create new demands and open up new markets.
Market research usually cannot identify demands for products that
do not yet exist.
This has been recognized particularly by those companies that
try to plan new product development in terms of both technological
seeds and customer needs; success depends on matching
seeds with needs. However, even when a market need and a
technology seed can be matched, and a new product concept
identified, there is no guarantee that a product will actually be
developed. It may require far too much financial investment, for
example, or a product champion may not emerge or be successful
within the company. Another reason is that some product
concepts are actually suppressed by companies and organizations
that have a strong vested interest in maintaining the markets for
their existing products. This is particularly true of industries with
a heavy capital investment in the continued production of a
particular product type. The motor industry, for example, failed to
support the development of alternative vehicles, such as electric
cars, until it began to see such innovations as potentially important
to its survival.
Some opportunities for new product development lie in the
region where an already-developed technology can meet an
undeveloped market, while others lie in the region where new
technology can be applied in an already developed market
(Figure 88). A third region, for the most radical (and risky) product
innovations, is where new technology and new market opportunities
might be developed together. The Sony Walkman and
Sinclair C5 were both examples of the latter.

Engineering Design Methods
Strategies for Product Design
THIRD EDITION
Nigel Cross
The Open University, Mi/ton Keynes, UK
JOHN WILEY & SONS, LTD
Chichester- New York. Weinheim • Brisbane. Singapore. Toronto

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Design of Snap Fits

A major attraction of plastics to designers is the ease with which fast assembly mechanisms can be incorporated into the end-product. A very good example of this is the snap fit. A typical design is shown in Fig. 2.22 although there are many variations. Snap fits exploit the fact that thin plastic sections can undergo relatively large flexural deflections for a short period of time and exhibit complete recovery. The design of snap fits is straightforward and does not involve creep curves since the time-scale of the deflectionlstress is small.
The point that will be illustrated here is that in a real design situations it is necessary to choose combinations of dimensions which provide the necessary function but which do not overstress the plastic. In the following example a set of design curves are developed to show how the different combinations of dimensions might be selected.
 PLASTICS
ENGINEERING
Third Edition
R.J. Crawford, BSc, PhD, DSc, FEng, FIMechE, FIM
Department of Mechanical, Aeronautical
and Manufacturing Engineering
The Queen’s University of Belfast

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CORROSION

Corrosion removal deals with the taking away of mass from the surface of materials by their environment and other forms of environmental attack that weaken or otherwise degrade material properties. The complex nature of corrosion suggests that the designer who is seriously concerned about corrosion review a good readable text such as Corrosion Engineering by Fontana and Greene [35.1].
Included in this chapter are many corrosion data for selected environments and materials. It is always hazardous to select one material in preference to another based only on published data because of inconsistencies in measuring corrosion, lack of completeness in documenting environments, variations in test methods, and possible publishing errors.These data do not generally indicate how small variations in temperature or corrosive concentrations might drastically increase or decrease corrosion rates. Furthermore, they do not account for the influence of other associated materials or how combinations of attack mechanisms may drastically alter a given material’s behavior. Stray electric currents should be considered along with the various attack mechanisms included in this chapter. Brevity has required simplification and the exclusion of some phenomena and data which may be important in some applications.
The data included in this chapter are but a fraction of those available. Corrosion Guide by Rabald [35.2] can be a valuable resource because of its extensive coverage of environments and materials.
Again, all corrosion data included in this chapter or published elsewhere should be used only as a guide for weeding out unsuitable materials or selecting potentially acceptable candidates. Verification of suitability should be based on actual experience or laboratory experimentation. The inclusion or exclusion of data in this chapter should not be interpreted as an endorsement or rejection of any material.

Milton G. Wille, Ph.D., P.E.
Professor of Mechanical Engineering
Brigham Young University
Provo, Utah

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Polymer Categories, Acetal (POM)

Acetal polymers are formed from the polymerization of formaldehyde. They are also known by the name polyoxymethylenes (POM). Polymers prepared from formaldehyde were studied by Staudinger in the 1920s, but thermally stable materials were not introduced until the 1950s when DuPont developed Delrin.1 Homopolymers are prepared from very pure formaldehyde by anionic polymerization, as shown in Fig. 1.4. Amines and the soluble salts of alkali metals catalyze the reaction.2 The polymer formed is insoluble and is removed as the reaction proceeds. Thermal degradation of the acetal resin occurs by unzipping with the release of formaldhyde. The thermal stability of the polymer is increased by esterification of the hydroxyl ends with acetic anhydride. An alternative method to improve the thermal stability is copoly merization with a second monomer such as ethylene oxide. The copolymer is prepared by cationic methods.3 This was developed by Celanese and marketed under the tradename Celcon. Hostaform is another copolymer marketed by Hoescht. The presence of the second monomer reduces the tendency for the polymer to degrade by unzipping.4 There are four processes for the thermal degradation of acetal resins. The first is thermal or base-catalyzed depolymerization from the chain, resulting in the release of formaldehyde. End capping the polymer chain will reduce this tendency. The second is oxidative attack at random positions, again leading to depolymerization. The use of antioxidants will reduce this degradation mechanism. Copolymerization is also helpful. The third mechanism is cleavage of the acetal linkage by acids. It is, therefore, important not to process acetals in equipment used for polyvinyl chloride (PVC), unless it has been cleaned, due to the possible presence of traces of HCl. The fourth degradation mechanism is thermal depolymerization at temperatures above 270°C. It is important that processing temperatures remain below this temperature to avoid degradation of the polymer.5 Acetals are highly crystalline, typically 75% crystalline, with a melting point of 180°C.6 Compared to polyethylene (PE), the chains pack closer together because of the shorter C O bond. As a result, the polymer has a higher melting point. It is also harder than PE. The high degree of crystallinity imparts good solvent resistance to acetal polymers. The polymer is essentially linear with molecular weights (Mn) in the range of 20,000 to 110,000.7 Acetal resins are strong and stiff thermoplastics with good fatigue properties and dimensional stability. They also have a low coefficient of friction and good heat resistance.8 Acetal resins are considered similar to nylons, but are better in fatigue, creep, stiffness, and water resistance.9 Acetal resins do not, however, have the creep resistance of polycarbonate. As mentioned previously, acetal resins have excellent solvent resistance with no organic solvents found below 70°C, however, swelling may occur in some solvents. Acetal resins are susceptible to strong acids and alkalis, as well as oxidizing agents. Although the C O bond is polar, it is balanced and much less polar than the carbonyl group present in nylon. As a result, acetal resins have relatively low water absorption. The small amount of moisture absorbed may cause swelling and dimensional changes, but will not degrade the polymer by hydrolysis.10 The effects of moisture are considerably less dramatic than for nylon polymers. Ultraviolet light may cause degradation, which can be reduced by the addition of carbon black. The copolymers generally have similar properties, but the homopolymer may have slightly better mechanical properties, and higher melting point, but poorer thermal stability and poorer alkali resistance.11 Along with both homopolymers and copolymers, there are also filled materials (glass, fluoropolymer, aramid fiber, and other fillers), toughened grades, and ultraviolet (UV) stabilized grades.12 Blends of acetal with polyurethane elastomers show improved toughness and are available commercially. Acetal resins are available for injection molding, blow molding, and extrusion. During processing it is important to avoid overheating or the production of formaldehyde may cause serious pressure buildup. The polymer should be purged from the machine before shutdown to avoid excessive heating during startup.13 Acetal resins should be stored in a dry place. The apparent viscosity of acetal resins is less dependent on shear stress and temperature than polyolefins, but the melt has low elasticity and melt strength. The low melt strength is a problem for blow molding applications. For blow molding applications, copolymers with branched structures are available. Crystallization occurs rapidly with postmold shrinkage complete within 48 h of molding. Because of the rapid crystallization it is difficult to obtain clear films.14 The market demand for acetal resins in the United States and Canada was 368 million pounds in 1997.15 Applications for acetal resins include gears, rollers, plumbing components, pump parts, fan blades, blow-molded aerosol containers, and molded sprockets and chains. They are often used as direct replacements for metal. Most of the acetal resins are processed by injection molding, with the remainder used in extruded sheet and rod. Their low coefficient of friction make acetal resins good for bearings.16 

Modern
Plastics
Handbook
Modern Plastics
and
Charles A. Harper Editor in Chief
Technology Seminars, Inc.
Lutherville, Maryland
McGraw-Hill
New York San Francisco Washington, D.C. Auckland Bogotá
Caracas Lisbon London Madrid Mexico City Milan
Montreal New Delhi San Juan Singapore
Sydney Tokyo Toronto

High-Molybdenum Alloys13

High-molybdenum stainless and nickel alloys are welded with an overmatching filler metal. This is necessary to maintain corrosion resistance in the weld metal at least equal to the base metal. The reason is that molybdenum and chromium segregate as the weld metal solidifies from the melt. This leaves local areas with high and low molybdenum content. Pitting corrosion can start in the low-Mo areas, with the pits eventually growing even into metal with high molybdenum content. This occurs in alloys ranging from 316L to C-276, for the most part being more severe at higher alloy contents This matter began to receive attention when the 6% Mo stainless steels came on the market. If any of these 6% Mo grades are welded without filler metal, the result is a weld bead that may be as low as 3% Mo in areas. The end result can be that this weld has only the pitting corrosion resistance of 317L stainless. In the case of tubular products autogenously welded in production, a high-temperature anneal is used to homogenize the metal. In addition, a small amount of nitrogen, 3–5%, is added to the torch gas. Fabrications of thin sheet, which cannot be annealed after welding, should have this nitrogen addition to minimize the loss of corrosion. Even so, because thin-sheet welds solidify more quickly, the segregation is less severe. In normal fabrication of a 6% Mo grade, alloy 625 (ERNiCrMo-3) filler metal is used. The weld metal contains 9% Mo. After welding, segregation causes some areas to have as little as 6% Mo. The result is that the alloy 625 weld bead has approximately the same corrosion resistance as the 6% Mo base metal. Higher alloy weld fillers, such as ERNiCrMo- 10 or ERNiCrMo-14, may also be used, though the benefit may be more theoretical than real. ERNiCrMo-4 is not suggested, as it has 5% less chromium than does AL-6XN, for example. Since the mid-1980s nearly all of the 6% Mo alloy fabrications have been made, and put into service, using a 9% Mo weld filler. ERNiCrMo-3 weld filler is widely available and is appropriate for welding lower alloys such as 317L, 317LMN, and 904L for chloride service. The problem of reduced weld bead corrosion resistance from molybdenum and chromium segregation exists with most of the 13–16% Mo nickel alloys as well. Filler 686 CPT (ERNiCrMo-14) does appear to be markedly less susceptible to this effect than other high-molybdenum alloys. 

STAINLESS STEELS
James Kelly
Rochester, Michigan
Mechanical Engineers’ Handbook: Materials and Mechanical Design, Volume 1, Third Edition.
Edited by Myer Kutz
2006 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 

Line types and thicknesses

The standard ISO 128:1982 gives 10 line types that are defined A to K (excluding the letter I). The table in Figure 3.4 shows these lines. The line types are 'thick', 'thin', 'continuous', 'straight', 'curved', 'zigzag', 'discontinuous dotted' and 'discontinuous chain dotted'. Each line type has clear meanings on the drawing and mixing up one type with another type is the equivalent of spelling something incorrectly in an essay. The line thickness categories 'thick' and 'thin' (sometimes called 'wide' and 'narrow') should be in the proportion 1:2. However, although the proportion needs to apply in all cases, the individual line thicknesses will vary depending upon the type, size and scale of the drawing used. The standard ISO 128:1982 states that the thickness of the 'thick' or 'wide' line should be chosen according to the size and type of the drawing from the following range: 0,18; 0,25; 0,35; 0,5; 0,7; 1; 1,4 and 2mm. However, in a direct contradiction of this the standard ISO 128-24:1999 states that the thicknesses should be 0,25; 0,35; 0,5; 0,7; 1; 1,4 and 2mm. Thus confusion reigns and the reader needs to beware! With reference to the table in Figure 3.4, the A-K line types are as follows. The ISO type 'A' lines are thick, straight and continuous, as shown in Figure 3.5. They are used for visible edges, visible outlines, crests of screw threads, limit of length of full thread and section viewing lines. The examples of all these can be seen in the vice assembly detailed drawings. These are by far the most common of the lines types since they define the artefact. The ISO type 'B' lines are thin, straight and continuous, as shown in Figure 3.6. They are used for dimension and extension lines, leader lines, cross hatching, outlines of revolved sections, short centre lines, thread routes and symmetry ('equals') signs. 

Engineering Drawing for Manufacture
by Brian Griffiths
· ISBN: 185718033X
· Pub. Date: February 2003
· Publisher: Elsevier Science & Technology Books


 

Manufacturing Data and Knowledge

Machining methods (also referred to as machining practices) provide CAPP with the knowledge, expertise, and procedures that a human process planner uses. These methods may be based on sound scientific principles, experimental results, experience, or preferences established within a particular machining context. They also may be generic and applicable over a wide range of machining problems or specific to a single one. The challenges in using machining methods within CAPP fall into the following categories: • Identification and retrieval • Implementation • Maintenance • Customization Identification and retrieval are concerned with understanding how a human process planner applies experience and techniques to make decisions when generating process plans: What decisions are being made? What characteristics of the situation are being recognized by the planner that trigger these decisions? The main challenge here stems from the fact that human planners do not necessarily follow a consistent strategy in applying methods. The process often requires complex trade-offs of information from several sources. When one of these sources is experience, the basis of the applied method can be difficult to verify. Thus, identification and retrieval of methods are not just a bookkeeping task. Rather, it requires the cultivation of an attitude toward process planning based on a sound methodology for applying machining methods. Methods implementation requires an approach that is general enough to capture information from very different sources while at the same time is simple enough to provide a maintainable, noncorruptible environment. Rule-based expert systems have been the most commonly adopted implementation strategy among CAPP system developers. Because the need to update or add new methods always exists as more information becomes available or as new methods are applied to more applications, maintenance of the knowledge base becomes a key concern. As changes are made, the integrity of the information needs to be preserved. One problem occurs when new methods are added that conflict with old ones. The system needs to include a strategy for resolving such conflicts. One approach that has been used extensively with expert systems is to place the onus on a knowledgable engineer to avert such problems. However, as the size of the knowledge base grows, the cost of employing dedicated personnel for this task becomes prohibitive. Finally, creating off-the-shelf CAPP systems with the methods included is a difficult if not impossible task. This is because it is unlikely that the system developer can capture all the desired methods from all potential users during system development. Thus, while a system may come with some generic, widely accepted methods, it must include a facility to allow new methods customized to each context to be added to the system.

THE MECHANICAL
SYSTEMS
DESIGN
HANDBOOK
Modeling, Measurement,
and Control
OSITA D. I. NWOKAH
YILDIRIM HURMUZLU
Southern Methodist University
Dallas, Texas
CRC PRESS
Boca Raton London New York Washington, D.C.

BASIC LINKAGE CONCEPTS

Kinematic Elements A linkage is composed of rigid-body members, or links, connected to one another by rigid kinematic elements, or pairs. The nature of those connections as well as the shape of the links determines the kinematic properties of the linkage. Although many kinematic pairs are conceivable and most do physically exist, only four have general practical use for linkages. In Fig. 3.1, the four cases are seen to include two with one degree of freedom (f = 1), one with f = 2, and one with f = 3. Single-degree-of-freedom pairs constitute joints in planar linkages or spatial linkages. The cylindrical and spherical joints are useful only in spatial linkages. The links which connect these kinematic pairs are usually binary (two connections) but may be tertiary (three connections) or even more.A commonly used tertiary link is the bell crank familiar to most machine designers. Since our primary interest in most linkages is to provide a particular output for a prescribed input, we deal with closed kinematic chains, examples of which are depicted in Fig. 3.2. Considerable work is now under way on robotics, which are basically open chains. Here we restrict ourselves to the closed-loop type. Note that many complex linkages can be created by compounding the simple four-bar linkage.This may not always be necessary once the design concepts of this chapter are applied. 

Richard E. Gustavson

Technical Staff Member
The Charles Stark Draper Laboratory, Inc.
Cambridge,Massachusetts
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