Flats on cylindrical or shaped surfaces

It is not always obvious that surfaces are flat when they are on otherwise curved, cylindrical or spherical surfaces. In this case, flat surfaces such as squares, tapered squares and other flat surfaces may be indicated by thin 'St Andrew' cross type diagonal lines. An example of this is shown in the entirely fictitious gear shaft in Figure 3.17. The extreme right-hand end of the shaft has a reduced diameter and approximately half of this cylindrical length has been flat milled to produce a square cross-section. The fact that the crosssectional shape of this region is square and not cylindrical is seen in the end view as a square and in the right-hand side elevation by the crosses. 

Engineering Drawing for Manufacture
by Brian Griffiths
Publisher: Elsevier Science & Technology Books
 

The headstock - The back gear LATHE

The headstock The headstock is secured permanently on the inner ways as the left hand end of the lathe bed, and it provides mechanical means of rotating the work at multiple speeds. It comprises essentially a hollow spindle and mechanism for driving and alternating the spindle speed. All parts are housed within the head stock casting. The spindle of headstock is made of carbon or nickel-chrome steel. The back gear The back gear is an additional feature of a belt driven lathe and is used to obtain wider range of spindle speeds, for the number of speeds obtained from “direct speeds” is limited to number of steps only. When the back gear is engaged, the spindle is speed is reduced considerably. So it is also used when it is necessary to have a slow speed of the spindle that cannot other wise be obtained by direct speed. A slow speed is necessary in the following cases. 1.In turning jobs of large diameter within the available cutting speed of the material 2.In turning jobs tough or hard material when the material is hard it becomes necessary to apply greater cutting force by the tool to shear out the metal. This increase in cutting force will require greater turning torque necessitating slower spindle speed. 3.In operations like thread cutting, reaming, e.t.c. 4.In taking deep cut as rough turning.
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Unscrewing System

To remove a product that is threaded on the inside, the mold that form the screw must be rotated in the opposite direction from the direction of threaded products. Player power can be generated by a straight motion from the mold openings are converted into rotary motion by means of transmission such as worm gear, or by adding a separate player. Below are shown examples of mold unscrewing system with its own player. As the player is connected to a motor. With through existing trnsmisi gears on the axle TSB core rotates in the direction opposite the direction of threaded products. At the base of cores threaded bushing installed with the direction and magnitude equal pitch screw threaded products. Because the threaded bushing above also serves as a nut, then the opposite direction when the screw rotated cores, cores will retreat and escape from the grip of the product, wherewith products are free from cores driven down by stripper plate. At the opening of the next mold, plates 1 and 2 open, runner pin sinking of the surface of the plate so that the runner down. To avoid co-rotating products during core spinning off product, at the end of the tooth or indentation formed male.

Dimension lines

Various ISO standards are concerned with dimensioning. They are under the heading of the ISO 129 series. The basic standard is ISO 129:1985 but it has various parts to it. A dimensioning 'instruction' must consist of at least four things. Considering the 50mm width of the jaw and the 32mm spacing of the holes of the movable jaw drawing in Figure 3.15, these are" Two projection lines which extend from the part and show the beginning and end of the actual dimension. They are projected from the part drawing and show the dimension limits. In Figure 3.15, the width is 50mm and the projection lines for this dimension show the width of the part. They are type B lines (thin, continuous and straight). These lines touch the outline of the part. The projection lines for the hole-centre spacing dimension of 32mm are centre lines. They are type G lines (thin, discontinuous, chain) which pass through the drawing just past where the holes are located. A dimension line which is a type B line (thin, continuous and straight). In Figure 3.15, these dimension lines are the length of the dimension itself, i.e. '50' or '32' mm long. A numerical value which is a length or an angle. In the Figure 3.15 example the dimensions are the '50mm' and '32mm' values. If a part is not drawn full size because it is too small or too large with respect to the drawing sheet, the actual dimension will be the value which it is in real life whereas the dimension line is scaled to the length on the drawing. Two terminators to indicate the beginning and end of the dimension line. The terminators of '50' and '32' dimensions in Figure 3.15 are solid, narrow arrowheads. Other arrowhead types may be used. There are four types of arrowhead allowed in ISO, as shown in Figure 3.16. These four are the narrow/open (15~ the wide/open (90~ the narrow/closed (15 ~ and the narrow/solid (15~ An alternative to an arrowhead is the oblique stroke. When several dimensions are to be projected from the same position, the 'origin' indication is used, consisting of a small circle. These drawings are shown in Figure 3.16. An example of an origin indicator is shown in the movable jaw detailed drawing. Many dimensioning examples can be seen in the movable jaw and hardened insert detail drawings. The dimensions in these two drawings follow the following convention. All terminators are of the solid arrow type, all projection lines touch the outside of the part outline, all dimension numerical values are placed above the dimension lines and all dimension values can be read from the lefthand bottom corner of the drawings. 
Engineering Drawing for Manufacture
by Brian Griffiths
Publisher: Elsevier Science & Technology Books

The bed LATHE

Description and functions of lathe parts Following are the principal parts: 1 Bed. 2.Headstock. 3.Tailstock. 4.Carriage. 5.Feed mechanism. 6.Screw cutting mechanism. The bed The lathe bed forms the base of the machine. The headstock and the tailstock are located at either end of the bed and carriage rests over the lathe bed and slides on it. The bed should be seasoned naturally to avoid distortion or warp that may develop when it is cooled after the bed is cast. The guide ways of the lathe may be flat and inverted- v having included angle of 90. The bed material should have high compressive strength, should be wear resistance and absorb vibration cast iron alloyed with nickel and chromium forms a good material suitable for lathe.




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Sistem Stripper - Ejector

The principle of this system is that the initial release of the product is driven by a stripper and ejectors simultaneously. This system can solve problems of the emergence of large deformation on the product due to stripping of the stripper system or due to the ejection of ejector system above. But in fact this system is mainly used in products where the wall or double wall inner wall has a snap. The principle mechanism of product release. aiming to achieve the distance along the mold opening delimiter pos1, where the stripper plate postal 2 no longer move backwards are other parts of the mold such as male (core) headings 3, 4 male, pos5 support plate, the runner heading pin 6 etc., will continue to move backwards until the composition range of mold. In this position ejector plate and post plate rentainer 7 does not come to move backwards because of the nylon tip shaft 8 which entered the post stripper plate press in post 2. In this position the product has been separated from male post 4, is a wall that has a snap in the end of the ejector pin is still mencengkaram post 9. In a subsequent retreat, nylon ripped from the stripper plate 2 so that the ejector plate post and retainer plate 7 with post-sam ejector pin 9 post interesting in retreat, the product apart from the tip ejector pin post 9. Ejector plate and the retainer plate with ejector pin post 7 post 9 held not come to move backward, it can happen with nylon at the end of the shaft of the post 8. Nylon TSB entered the press with the press can be adjusted by adjusting the bolt conical body. If the bolt rotated to right, in this case the right threaded bolts, then the tuner will sink bolts and nylon will enlarge, press the stripper plate style will grow. This press style that causes the ejector pin go stuck. At the next retreat, ejector plate and the retainer plate 7 will be heading in the push back by the support plate heading 5, where the impetus is greater than the style press nylon, making nylon uprooted from the stripper plate ejector pin which then come to move backward. In addition to nylon, or the opening sequence of movements can also be made of them by wearing jiffy lock.

Design Process - Service design

Design Process Effective design can provide a competitive edge matches product or service characteristics with customer requirements ensures that customer requirements are met in the simplest and least costly manner reduces time required to design a new product or service minimizes revisions necessary to make a design workable Design Process (cont.) Product design defines appearance of product sets standards for performance specifies which materials are to be used determines dimensions and tolerances Service design specifies what physical items, sensual benefits, and psychological benefits customer is to receive from service defines environment in which service will take place

Stripper system

In the picture looks stripper mechanism, where the product is dropped by a plate drawn by the pull plate is fastened to the plate cavity. At an open mold, the core will open for the movement carried by the moving plate. runner or know by heart is also separated from the sprue, because of the undercut at the end of the run ner pin. The products also come loose at the pull out step plates. The system is relatively inexpensive but only for a simple product of a certain size. If the product has a wide or large diameters and thin walls, so after products on the strip off from the core (male), there is a possibility the product will be deformation (bending). This is because: - Vacuum at the upper inner wall of the product - Large diameter products that produce products cengkaram force on the core component is also large, while the thin wall product is not strong to overcome the vacuum's and grip style. Deformation is common in the soft plastic material such as PE, PP, etc.

Functional and non-functional dimensions

Although every aspect of a component has to be dimensioned, some dimensions are naturally more important than others. Some dimensions will be critical to the correct functioning of the component and these are termed functional dimensions. Other dimensions will not be critical to correct functioning and these are termed non-functional dimensions. Functional dimensions are obviously the more important of the two and therefore will be more important when making decisions about the dimension value. Figure 4.1 shows an assembly of a shaft, pulley and body. A shaft is screwed into some form of body and a pulley is free to rotate on the shaft in order to provide drive power via a belt (not shown). The details of the three parts of this assembly are shown below the assembly drawing. The important function dimensions are labelled 'F', and the non-functional dimensions 'NF'. The main function of the assembly is to allow the pulley to rotate on the shaft, driven by the belt. Thus, the bearing diameter and length of the bolt pulley are important and therefore they are functional dimensions because they define the clearances that allow the pulley to rotate on the shaft. The belt will be under tension and the resulting lateral drive force will be transmitted to the shaft. The stresses set up by this force must be resisted by the screw thread in the body. Therefore, the length of engagement of the thread in the body is a functional dimension.
Engineering Drawing for Manufacture

by Brian Griffiths
Publisher: Elsevier Science & Technology Books
 

The mechanism of injection molding product expenditures

To remove the product from the mold, the mold Should Be moved to open the form in the which the movement is a return of the plate and other parts of the mold is Carried by the backward motion of the moving plate. Backward movement or opening Should Be synchronous is imultaneously or sequentially with movements also That other parts of the mold so That the product apart and fell out of the mold. At the time the mold opens, the supporters in terms of weight,mold is Divided into two parts That come the moving plate (cavity) and the part the which joined the fixed plate (core). In general, the moving mold plate to function as participating forming the inner product, where in this section are the components or the driving mechanism of the release of the product. Currently participating fix the mold plate is Generally sebagain forming the outer product, and will of Those parts have sprue and runner system.

The Engineering Design Process

Engineering design is one of the processes normally associated with the entire business or enterprise. from receipt of the order or product idea. 10 maintenance of the product. and all stages in between (Figure 2.6). The design process requires input from such areas as customer needs. materials. capital, energy. time requirements. and human knowledge and skills. Two important societal concerns that an engineer must take into account are legal and environmelltal issues. Every business must operate within the law that governs their business. When designing. it is important that the engineer understand that legal issues may affect the designed product. Safety laws related to automobiles are an example of how government legislation can affect a design. Governmcnt regulations related to the cnvironment may also havc a bearing on the final outcome of the design. For cxamplc. the cmission requircments on an automobile cngine havc a great effect on the final design. An cxample of human knowledgc input is an cngineer's knowledge of graphics. mathematics. and the sciences. Such knowledge is used by the engineer to analyze and solve prohlems. An engineering design involves hoth a process and a product. A process is a series of continuous actions ending in a panicular result. A product is anything produced as a result of some process. As the design of a product or process is developed. the design team applies engineering principles, follows budgetary constraints. and takes into account legal and social issues. For example, when a building is designed. engineering principles arc used to analyze the structure for loads: determine the structure's cost. based on the materials 10 be used. the size of the structure. and aesthetic considemtions; and create a design that adhcres to the local laws. Graphics is an extremely important pan of the engineering design process. which uses graphics as a tool to visualize possible solutions and to document the design for communications purposes. Graphics or geometric modeling using CAD is used to visualize, analyze, d(X~ument. and produce a product or process. In fact. geometric modeling it,<;elf could be considere a process. geometric modeling produces final design solutions, as well as inputs to the production process, in the form of wrnputer databases. As a product. geometric modeling is a result of the engineering design process. 

The Engineering Design Process
Bertoline-Wiebe-Miller:
Fundamentals of Graphics Communication,3/e
The McGraw-Hill Companies,2001
 

Sectional views

There are some instances when parts have complex internal geometries and one needs to know information about the inside as well as the outside of the artefact. In such cases, it is possible to include a section as one of the orthographic views. A typical section is shown in Figure 2.16. This is a drawing of a cover that is secured to another part by five bolts. These five bolts pass through the five holes in the edge of the flange. There is an internal chamber and some form of pressurised system is connected to the cover by the central threaded hole. The engineering drawing in Figure 2.16 is in third angle projection. The top drawing is incomplete. It is only half the full flange. This is because the part is symmetrical on either side of the horizontal centre line, hence the 'equals' signs at either end. This means that, in the observer's eye, a mirror image of the part should be placed below the centre line. Note that the view projected (beneath) from this plan view is not a side view but a section through the centre. In museums, it is normal practice to cut or section complex parts like engines to show the internal workings. Parts that are sectioned are invariably painted red (or any other bright colour!). In engineering drawing terms, the equivalent of painting something red is to use cross-hatching lines which, in the case of Figure 2.16, are placed at 45 ~ The ISO rules concerning the form and layout of such section lines is given in Chapter 3. The method of indicating the fact that a section has been taken on the view, from which the section is projected, is shown in the plan view of the flange. Here, the centre line has two thicker lines at either end with arrows showing the direction of viewing. Against the arrows are the capital letters W, and it is along these lines and in the direction of arrows that the sectional view is taken. The third angle projection view beneath is a section along the line AA, hence it is given the title 'Section AN. This method of showing the section position with a thickened line and arrows is explained further in the following chapter on ISO rules. Other examples of sections are given in the assembly drawing of a small hand vice (see Figure 1.11) and the detailed drawing of the movable jaw of the vice (see Figure 1.12). In the case of the movable jaw detailed drawing in Figure 1.12, the front view is shown on the top-left and the right-hand side drawing view is a right-hand section through the centre line. In this instance there are no section lines or arrows to indicate that it is a section through the centre. However, in this case, it should be obvious that the section is through the centre and therefore it is not necessary to include the arrows. However, this is not the case for the inverted planned view, which is a complicated half-section with two section plane levels on the left-hand side and a conventional inverted plan (unsectioned) view on the right-hand side. Because this is a complicated inverted plan view, the section line and arrows are shown to guide the viewer. Note that the crosshatched lines on the two different left-hand planes are staggered slightly. A different type of section is shown in the assembly drawing in Figure 1.11. Here the movable jaw (part number 3), the hardened insert (part number 2), the bush (part number 4), the bush screw (part number 5) and part of the jaw clamp screw (part number 6) are shown in section. This is what is termed a 'local' section because the whole side view is not in section but a part of it. The various parts in the section are cross-hatched with lines at different slopes and different spacings. The section limits are shown by the zig-zag line on the movable jaw and a wavy line on the jaw clamp screw. Another type of section is shown on the tommy bar of the assembly drawing. This is a small circle with cross-hatching inside. This is called a 'revolved section' and it shows that, at this particular point along the tommy bar, the cross-sectional shape is circular. In this instance the cross-sectional shape would be the same at any point along the tommy so it doesn't really matter where the section appears. The ISO standards dealing with sectional views are ISO 128-40:2001 and ISO 128-44:2001. 

Engineering Drawing for Manufacture
by Brian Griffiths
Publisher: Elsevier Science & Technology Books

Why are first and third angle projections so named?

The terms first angle projection and third angle projection may seem like complicated terms but the reason for their naming is connected with geometry. Figure 2.15 shows four angles given by the planes OA, OB, OC and OD. When a part is placed in any of the four quadrants, its outline can be projected onto any of the vertical or horizontal planes. These projections are produced by viewing the parts either from the right-hand side or from above as shown by the arrows in the diagram. In first angle projection the arrows project the shape of the parts onto the planes OA and OB. When the two planes are opened up to 180 ~ as shown in the small diagrams in Figure 2.15, the two views will be in first angle projection arrangement. When the part in the third quadrant is viewed from the righthand side and from above, the view will be projected forwards onto the faces OC and OD. When the planes are opened up to 180 ~ the views will be in third angle projection arrangement, as shown in thesmall diagrams in Figure 2.15. If parts were to be placed in the second and fourth quadrant, the views projected onto the faces when opened out would be incoherent and invalid because they cannot be projected from one another. It is for this reason that there is no such thing as second angle projection or fourth angle projection. There are several ISO standards dealing with views in first and third angle projection. These standards are" ISO 128"1982, ISO 128-30:2001 and ISO 128-34:2001. 
Engineering Drawing for Manufacture
by Brian Griffiths
Publisher: Elsevier Science & Technology Books
 

Design Aesthetic

Design is the process of conceiving or inventing ideas mentally and communicating those ideas to others in a form that is easily understood. Most often the communications tool is graphics. Design is used for two primary purposes: personal expression, and product or proccss dcvelopment (Figure 2.1). Design for personal expression. usually associated with art. is divided into concrete (realistic) and abstract dcsign and is uften a source uf beauty and intercst (Figure 2.2). Whcn a design servcs some useful purpose. such asthe shape of a ncw automobile wheel. it is classified as a design for product or process development (Figllre 2.3). Aesthetic design is concerned with the look and feel of a product. Industrial designers specialize in the aesthetic qualities of products. as well as other clements related to human-machine functionality. Functional design is concerned with the function of a product or process. Airflow over an automobile is an example of a fllnctional design element. Most engineers are con~~erned with functional elements (Figure 2.4). Many products will have both aesthetic and functional design elements. requiring the engineers and designers to work as a ieam to produce a product or system thaI is both runctional and aeslhetically pleasing (Figure 2.5). 

The Engineering Design Process
Bertoline-Wiebe-Miller:
Fundamentals of Graphics Communication,3/e
The McGraw-Hill Companies,200

Projection lines

In third angle projection, the various views are projected from each other. Each view is of the same size and scale as the neighbouring views from which it is projected. Projection lines are shown in Figure 2.14. Here only three of the Figure 2.12 views are shown. Horizontal projection lines align the front view and the left-side view of the block. Vertical projection lines align the front view and the plan view. The plan view and the left-side view must also be in orthographic third-angle projection alignment but they are not projected directly from one another. A deflector line is placed at 45 ~ This line allows the horizontal projection lines from the plan view to be rotated through 90 ~ to produce vertical projection lines that align with the left-side view. These horizontal and vertical projection lines are very convenient for aligning the various views and making sure that they are in correct alignment. However, once the views are completed in their correct alignment, the projection lines are not needed because they tend to complicate the drawing with respect to the main purpose, which is to manufacture the artefact. It is normal industrial practice to erase any projection lines such that the views stand out on their own. Often in engineering drawing lessons in a school, the teacher may insist projection lines be left on an orthographic drawing. This is done because the teacher is concerned about making sure the academic niceties of view alignment are completed correctly. Such projection lines are an unnecessary complication for a manufacturer and therefore, since the emphasis here is on drawing for manufacture, projection lines will not be included from here on in this book. 

Engineering Drawing for Manufacture
by Brian Griffiths
Publisher: Elsevier Science & Technology Books

Thermoforming

Thermoforming is a set of processes for forming a thermoplastic sheet or film around the mold by applying heat and pressure. In this process, the sheet is heated in the oven until softened but not to the melting point. Sheet is then removed from the oven, spread out around the mold and then the sheet is sucked by the vacuum process. Because the mold at room temperature, then the formation of the plastic mold will be in accordance with smoked During sheet in contact with mould. That the types of products generated with this process are Billboards, packaging, household applications. Product-open or hollow products can not be formed Because the pressure can not be maintained During the formation. Since thermoforming is the process of withdrawal and toning, as well as sheet metal forming, the material must have a high uniformity of strain, if not Will there be a failure. -Mould for thermoforming molds are usually made ​​from aluminum Because of the high fracture strength is not required. Tooling is not too expensive and quality considerations, including wear, unequal thickness is not too significant. (bid / multiple sources)

First angle projection

The other standard orthographic projection method is first angle projection. The only difference between first angle and third angle projection is the position of the views. First angle projection is the opposite to third angle projection. The view, which is seen from the side of an object, is placed on the opposite side of that object as if one is looking through it. Figure 2.13 shows the first angle projection layout of the bracket shown in Figure 2.12. The labelling of the views (e.g. front view, plan, etc.) is identical in Figures 2.12 and 2.13. Note that in first angle projection, the right-side view is not placed on the right-hand side of the front view as in third angle projection but rather on the left-hand side of the front view as shown in Figure 2.13. Similarly, the left-side view appears on the right-hand side of the front view. The other views are similarly placed. A comparison between Figures 2.12 and 2.13 shows that the views are identical but the positions and hence relationships are different. Another first angle projection drawing is seen in the title box in Figure 2.13. This is the truncated cone. It is the standard ISO symbol for first angle projection (ISO 128:1982). It is this symbol which is placed on drawings in preference to the phrase 'first angle projection'. First angle projection is becoming the least preferred of the two types of projection. Therefore, during the remainder of this book, third angle projection conventions will be followed. 

Engineering Drawing for Manufacture
by Brian Griffiths
Publisher: Elsevier Science & Technology Books

Rotational molding

Most thermoplastics and thermosets can be formed into products with a large cavity with Rotational molding process. Mould with thin metal walls are made in two pieces and is designed to rotate in two mutually perpendicular axes. Plastic powder that has been measured previously placed in a warm mold. Mould then heated in an oven usually large, while the mold is rotated in two axes. This process makes the powder pressed into a mold where the mold surface will heat the powder without melt. The types of products made with this process are tanks with a variety of sizes, trash, baket, housing, ball. The liquid polymer called plastisol (usually used vinyl plastisol) can also be used in slush molding process. Mold simultaneously heated and rotated. After contact with the wall of the mold material to melt and mold wall wrap. Products to be cold when it was still spinning and removed by opening the mold.

Third angle projection of a bracket

Figure 2.12 shows a third angle projection drawing of a small bracket. In this case, the plan view and the inverted plan view are projected from the front face. Note that the arrangements of the views are still in third angle projection but they are arranged differently from the views in Figure 2.11. Another example of third angle projection is seen in the truncated cone within the title box in Figure 2.12. Here, the cone is on its side and only two views are shown yet they are still in third angle projection. The reason the cone is shown within the box is that it is the standard symbol for third angle projection recommended in ISO 128" 1982. The standard recommends that this symbol be used within the title block of an engineering drawing rather than the words 'third angle projection' because ISO uses symbology to get away from a dependency on any particular language. Third angle projection has been used to describe engineering artefacts from the earliest of times. In the National Railway Museum in York, there is a drawing of George Stephenson's 'Rocket' steam locomotive, dated 1840. The original is in colour. This is a cross between an engineering drawing (as described above) and an artistic sketch. Shadows can be seen in both orthographic views. Presumably this was done to make the drawings as realistic as possible. This is an elegant drawing and nicely illustrates the need for 'engineered' drawings for the manufacture of the Rocket locomotive. Bailey and Glithero (2000) state, 'The Rocket is also important in representing one of the earliest achievements of mechanical engineering design'. In this context, the use of third angle projection is significant, bearing in mind that the Rocket was designed and manufactured during the transition period between the millwrightbased manufacturing practice of the craft era and the factory-based manufacturing practice of the industrial revolution. However, third angle projection was used much earlier than this. It was used by no less than James Watt in 1782 for drawing John Wilkinson's Old Forge engine in Bradley (Boulton and Watt Collection at Birmingham Reference Library). In 1781 Watt did all his own drawing but from 1790 onwards, he established a drawing office and he had one assistant, Mr John Southern. These drawings from the beginning of the industrial revolution are significant. They illustrate that two of the fathers of the industrial revolution chose to use third angle projection. It would seem that at the beginning of the 18th century third angle was preferred, yet a century later first angle projection (explained below) had become the preferred method in the UK. Indeed, the 1927 BSI drawing standard states that third angle projection is the preferred UK method and third angle projection is the preferred USA method. It is not clear why the UK changed from one to the other. However, what is clear is that it has changed back again because the favoured projection method in the UK is now third angle. 

Engineering Drawing for Manufacture
by Brian Griffiths
Publisher: Elsevier Science & Technology Books

Injection Blow Moulding

This process is a modification of the process and injection molding extrusi. In Extrusion blow molding, a tube is produced from the extruder and then clamped into the mold (mold) with a cavity larger than the tube diameter. Then the wind blows to fill the cavity. The process usually by blowing a blast of water with a pressure of 50-100 psi. In continuous operation extrusi process with a closed mold around the tube, both the top and bottom closed. Then after spending the cold products made ​​product by ejection. Pipes and tubes made ​​with a continuous blow molding, where the pipe or tube stretched and blown inside the mold. In the Injection Blow Molding, A short tube (parison) is generated. Dies are then opened and the parison is transferred into a blow molding die. Hot air is injected into the parison, with the spread and fill the cavity. The types of products are bottles and containers. In a multilayer blow molding is used coextruder tube or parison-parison to form a multi-layer structure. Examples of this type of structure is a multi-layer plastic food and beverage packaging. (bid / multiple sources)

Third angle projection

Figure 2.10 shows a small cornflake packet (courtesy of Kellogg's) that has been cut and folded back to produce a development of a set of six connected faces. Each one of these faces represents a true view of the original box. Each face (view) is folded out from an adjacent face (view). Folding the faces back and gluing could reassemble the packet. The development in Figure 2.10 is but one of a number of possible developments. For example, the top and bottom small faces could have been connected to (projected from) the back face (the 'bowl game' face) rather than as shown. Alternatively, the top and bottom faces could have been connected. Figure 2.11 (courtesy of Kellogg's) shows the same layout but with the views separated from each other such that it is no longer a development but a series of individual views of the faces. The various views have been labelled. The major face of the packet is the one with the title 'Corn Flakes'. This face is the important one because it is the one that would be placed facing outwards on a supermarket shelf. This view is termed the 'front view' and all the other views are projected from it. Note the obvious names of the other views. All the other five views are projected from the front face view as per the layout in Figure 2.10. This arrangement of views is called third angle orthographic projection. The reason why this is so is explained below. The third angle orthographic projection 'law' is that the view one sees from your viewing position is placed on the same side as you view it from. For example, the plan view is seen from above so it is placed above the front face because it is viewed from that direction. The right-side view is placed on the right-hand side of the front view. Similarly, the left-side view is placed to the left of the front view. In this case, the rear view is placed on the left of the left-side view but it could have also been placed to the right of the right-side view. Note that opposite views (of the packet) can only be projected from the same face because orthographic relationships must be maintained. For example, in Figure 2.11, the plan view and inverted plan view are both projected from the front view. They could just as easily have both been projected from the right-side view (say) but not one from the front face and one from the rightside view. It is doesn't matter which arrangement of views is used as long as the principle is followed that you place what you see at the position from which you are looking. 
Engineering Drawing for Manufacture
by Brian Griffiths
Publisher: Elsevier Science & Technology Books
 

Orthographic projection

In orthographic projection, the front face is always parallel to the picture frame and the projectors are perpendicular to the picture frame (see Figure 2.9). This means that one only ever sees the true front face that is a 2D view of the object. The receding faces are therefore not seen. This is the same as on an oblique projection but with the projectors perpendicular rather than at an angle. The other faces can also be viewed if the object is rotated through 90 degree .There will be six such orthographic views. These are stand-alone views but if the object is to be 'reassembled' from these six views there must be a law that defines how they are related. In engineering drawing there are two laws, these are first or third angle projection. In both cases, the views are the same; the only thing that differs is the position of the views with respect to each other. The most common type of projection is third angle projection.
Engineering Drawing for Manufacture by Brian Griffiths Publisher:
Elsevier Science &
Technology Books

Oblique projection

In oblique projection, the object is aligned such that one face (the front face) is parallel to the picture plane. The projection lines are still parallel but they are not perpendicular to the picture plane. This produces a view of the object that is 3D. The front face is a true view (see Figure 2.7). It has the advantage that features of the front face can be drawn exactly as they are, with no distortion. The receding faces can be drawn at any angle that is convenient for illustrating the shape of the object and its features. The front face will be a true view, and it is best to make this one the most complicated of the faces. This makes life easier! Most oblique projections are drawn at an angle of 45 ~ and at this angle the foreshortening is 50%. This is called a Cabinet projection. This is because of its use in the furniture industry. If the 45 ~ angle is used and there is no foreshortening it is called a Cavalier projection. The problem with Cavalier projection is that, because there is no foreshortening, it looks peculiar and distorted. Thus, Cabinet projection is the preferred method for constructing an oblique projection. An oblique drawing of the bearing bracket in Cabinet projection is shown in Figure 2.8. For convenience, the front view with circles was chosen as the true front view. This means that the circles are true circles and therefore easy to draw. The method of construction for oblique projection is similar to the method described above for isometric projection except that the angles are not 30 ~ but 45 ~ . Enclosing rectangles are again used and transposed onto the 45 ~ oblique planes using 50% foreshortening. Engineering Drawing for Manufacture by Brian Griffiths Publisher: Elsevier Science & Technology Books

Structural foam molding

Structural foam molding is a modified version injection where conventional molding plastic products consist of a dense outer surface of the skin that surrounds the inside (foam). This process is suitable for large-scale production, the product is relatively thick. Foam cores are produced from this process is suitable for bending applications. If the skin has the highest tensile strength and compressive stress, then the neutral axis of the work on the weaker parts of the inner foam. This process offers several advantages from the manufacturing process because it is able to produce products that are complex and have a low voltage so that the tendency for reduced bending or distorted. Then the clamping force is required of this process is lower than conventional injection molding process. This process is widely used for the production of large-sized plastic such as engine housings, chassis, computer housings, bin-bin storage, pallets and others. Polymers are often used for this process is the HOPE, PP, ABS and PC. Resins used in the Low Pressure is applied to this process consists of a small amount of blowing or foaming agent, this type of Chemical Blowing Agent (CBA) decomposition temperatures approaching the temperature of the resin. During the CBA process is decomposed in a large volume of gas as the beginning of a foaming process. Then injected into the cavity short shot. The skin is formed when the gas pressure near the surface of the collapse due to the mold surface. Furthermore, the gas spreads pressing short shot to complete filling cavity. After filling the gas continued to press with the uniform in all directions, pressing the dense skin on the mold surface, effectively also eliminate sink marks. Compared with the conventional injection process, voltage and much reduced shrinkage due to pressure on the cavity is relatively uniform. Before the ejection process must be ensured that the product starts cold and dense. Besides the advantages mentioned above there are a number of disadvantages when compared with conventional injection molding process, namely because the thickness of the walls are made then the cycle time achieved the longer, the consumption of the material also becomes more and more. For this type of process better position the gate at the thinnest part, is to facilitate filling the cavity thick sections. Unlike in conventional injection molding process on the premature solidification of a thin section of a thicker section and the gate does not occur. (Bid / multiple sources)

Isometric projection

In isometric projection, the projection plane forms three equal angles with the co-ordinate axis. Thus, considering the isometric cube in Figure 2.4, the three cube axes are foreshortened to the same amount, i.e. AB = AC = AD. Two things result from this, firstly, the angles a = b = 30 ~ and secondly, the rear (hidden) corner of the cube is coincident with the upper corner (corner D). Thus, if the hidden edges of the cube had been shown, there would be dotted lines going from D to F, D to C and D to B. The foreshortening in the three axes is such that AB = AC = AD = (2/3) o.5 = 0.816. Since isometric projections are pictorial projections and dimensions are not normally taken from them, size is not really important. Hence, it is easier to ignore the foreshortening and just draw the object full size. This makes the drawing less complicated but it does have the effect of apparently enlarging the object by a factor 1.22 (1 + 0.816). Bearing this in mind and the fact that both angles are 30 ~ it is not surprising that isometric projection is the most commonly used of the three types of axonometric projection. The method of constructing isometric projections is shown in the diagrams in Figures 2.5 and 2.6. An object is translated into isometric projection by employing enclosing shapes (typically squares and rectangles) around important features and along the three axes. Considering the isometric cube in Figure 2.4, the three sides are three squares that are 'distorted' into parallelograms, aligned with the three isometric axes. Internal features can be projected from these three parallelograms. The method of constructing an isometric projection of a flanged bearing block is shown in Figure 2.5. The left-hand drawing shows the construction details and the right-hand side shows the 'cleaned up' final isometric projection. An enclosing rectangular cube could be placed around the whole bearing block but this enclosing rectangular cube is not shown on the construction details diagram because of the complexity. Rather, the back face rectangle CDEF and the bottom face ABCF are shown. Based on these two rectangles, the construction method is as follows. Two shapes are drawn on the isometric back plane CDEE These are the base plate rectangle CPQF and the isometric circles within the enclosing square LMNO. Two circles are placed within this enclosing square. They represent the outer and inner diameters of the bearing at the back face. The method of constructing an isometric circle is shown in the example in Figure 2.6. Here a circle of diameter ab is enclosed by the square abcd. This isometric square is then translated onto each face of the isometric cube. The square abcd thus becomes a parallelogram abcd. The method of constructing the isometric circles within these squares is as follows. The isometric square is broken down further into a series of convenient shapes, in this case five small long-thin rectangles in each quadrant. These small rectangles are then translated on to the isometric cube. The intersection heights ef, gh, ij and kl are then projected onto the equivalent rectangles on the isometric projection. The dots corresponding to the points fhjl are the points on the isometric circles. These points can be then joined to produce isometric circles. The isometric circles can either be produced freehand or by using matching ellipses. Returning to the isometric bearing plate in Figure 2.5, the isometric circles representing the bearing outside and inside diameters are constructed within the isometric square LMNO. Two angled lines PR are drawn connecting the isometric circles to the base CPQE The rear shape of the bearing bracket is now complete within the enclosing rectangle CDEE Returning to the isometric projection drawing of the flanged bearing block in Figure 2.5. The inside and outside bearing diameters in the isometric form are now projected forward and parallel to the axis BC such that two new sets of isometric circles are constructed as shown. The isometric rectangle CPQF is then projected forward, parallel to BC that produces rectangle ABST, thus completing the bottom plate of the bracket. Finally, the web front face UVWX is constructed. This completes the various constructions of the isometric bearing bracket and the final isometric drawing on the right-hand side can be constructed and hidden detail removed. Any object can be constructed as an isometric drawing provided the above rules of enclosing rectangles and squares are followed which are then projected onto the three isometric planes. 

Engineering Drawing for Manufacture by Brian Griffiths 

Publisher: Elsevier Science & 

Technology Books

The raw material for plastic products

The raw material for plastic products, petroleum, natural gas and coal as a carbon source. The starting material is now part of the pyrolysis recycling plants are used: The name of the plastic is a generic term for synthetic or natural product produced by the conversion of macromolecular materials. These macromolecules consist of individual, chemically linked to each other building blocks of molecules, called monomers. With a series of monomers are called polymers. In this case, a single polymer chain is formed of thousands of monomers. Plastics can be composed of linear molecules, branched or cross-linked. Linear and branched macromolecules that no network should be moved by using heat. The molecules can slide to one another, that is material to flow and form. Therefore, the polymer material known as thermoplastic. The longer the molecular chain of plastic material, the higher is its strength properties. Thermoplastic properties ranging from soft to hard, difficult or hard and brittle. For elastomers, the macromolecule is a weak network. They are at room temperature before the chain due to their high mobility in the rubber state. Elastomers are not meltable and insoluble. Plastic with a strong spatial cross-linked chains of molecules known as thermosets. They act hard and brittle at room temperature. They are insoluble and infusible, and elastomers. There's also called a thermoplastic elastomer (TPE), the rubber-like material that can melt, however. They are made of thermoplastic materials such as thread-like molecule. In the thermoplastic elastomer, a molecule such as a thread but has segments of individual molecules, which have a strong attraction for one another that they act like a network. There is one main difference between thermoplastics and thermosets and elastomers associated with the process. Thermoplastic melts, processed, and then cooled. Thermosets and elastomers are processed cold and then heated, resulting in (heal) crosslinking of plastic. When Duromerverarbeitung should always be reworked, because the parts can not be formed without form. In the case of thermoplastics, the difference is still between the thermoplastic amorphous and semi-crystalline. This refers to how the thread-like molecules that are stored after cooling. If they are present in the network is completely random, they are called amorphous thermoplastics. The properties of amorphous thermoplastics • can form regular structures because they do not close the packaging. • If you are in a condition such as wipes or cotton balls • in the state of transparent colorless • lower shrinkage than semi-crystalline thermoplastics. translate fr: KraussMaffei Kunstsofftechnick

Types of drawings

There are a number of different types of engineering drawings, each of which meets a particular purpose. There are typically nine types of drawing in common use, these are: 1. A design layout drawing (or design scheme) which represents in broad principles feasible solutions which meet the design requirements. 2. A detail drawing (or single part drawing) shows details of a single artefact and includes all the necessary information required for its manufacture, e.g. the form, dimensions, tolerances, material, finishes and treatments. 3. A tabular drawing shows an artefact or assembly typical of a series of similar things having a common family form but variable characteristics all of which can be presented in tabular form, e.g. a family of bolts. 4. An assembly drawing shows how the individual parts or subassemblies of an artefact are combined together to make the assembly. An item list should be included or referred to. An assembly drawing should not provide any manufacturing details but merely give details of how the individual parts are to be assembled together. 5. A combined drawing is a combination of detail drawings, assembly drawings and an item list. It represents the constituent details of the artefact parts, how they are manufactured, etc., as well as an assembly drawing and an accompanying item list. 6. An arrangement drawing can be with respect to a finished product or equipment. It shows the arrangement of assemblies and parts. It will include important functional as well as performance requirements features. An installation drawing is a particular variation of an arrangement drawing which provides the necessary details to affect installation of typically chemical equipment. 7. A diagram is a drawing depicting the function of a system, typically electrical, electronic, hydraulic or pneumatic that uses symbology. 8. An item list, sometimes called a parts list, is a list of the component parts required for an assembly. An item list will either be included on an assembly drawing or a separate drawing which the assembly drawing refers to. 9. A drawing list is used when a variety of parts make up an assembly and each separate part or artefact is detailed on a separate drawing. All the drawings and item lists will be crossreference on a drawing list. Figures 1.11 and 1.12 show an assembly drawing and a detailed drawing of a small hand vice. The assembly drawing is in orthographic third-angle projection. It shows the layout of the individual parts constituting the assembly. There are actually 14 individual parts in the assembly but several of these are common, such as the four insert screws and two-off hardened inserts such that the number of identifiable separate components numbers 10. On the drawing each of the 10 parts is numbered by a balloon reference system. The accompanying item list shows the part number, the number required and its description. Separate detailed drawings would have to be provided for non-standard parts. One such detailed drawing is shown in Figure 1.12, which is the detailed drawing of the movable jaw. This is shown in third-angle orthographic projection with all the dimensions sufficient for it to be manufactured. Tolerances have been left off for convenience. Engineering Drawing for Manufacture by Brian Griffiths Publisher: Elsevier Science & Technology Books

Product Development Organizations

In addition to crafting an effective development process, successful firms must organize their product development staffs effectively. In this section, we describe several types of organizations used for product development and offer guidelines for choosing among these options. Organizations Are Formed by Establishing Links among Individuals A product development organization is the scheme by which individual designers and developers are linked together into groups. The links among individuals may be formal or informal and include, among others, these types: • Reporting relationships: Reporting relationships give rise to the classic notion of supervisor and subordinate. These are the formal links most frequently shown on an organization chart. • Financial arrangements: Individuals are linked by being part of the same financial entity, such as that defined by a particular budget category or profit-and-loss statement. • Physical layout: Links are created between individuals when they share the same office, floor, building, or site. These links are often informal, arising from spontaneous encounters while at work. Any particular individual may be linked in several different ways to other individuals. For example, an engineer may be linked by a reporting relationship to another engineer in a different building, while being linked by physical layout to a marketing person sitting in the next office. The strongest organizational links are typically those involving performance evaluation, budgets, and other resource allocations.
References and Bibliography
Many current resources are available on the Internet via www.ulrich-eppinger.net Stage-gate product development processes have been dominant in manufacturing firms for the past 30 years. Cooper describes the modem stage-gate process and many of its enabling practices. Cooper, Robert G., Winning at New Products: Accelerating the Process from Idea to Launch, third edition, Perseus Books, Cambridge, MA, 2001.
 

Plastic Manufacturing Process

The establishment of the injection process This process is the process by which plastic pellets melt with the heat and drain liquid into a closed mold. Then the material is cooled and solidified to form the product in accordance with their prints. Then the plastic that has formed is removed from cavitynya the ejection process. Detailed process sequence is as follows: a. Charging Granules of plastic material which is collected in the hopper by gravity will fall and fall into the injection cylinder. Within this cylindrical plastic granules are heated either by heating or heater because the process of a rotating screw. With terisinya nozzle by the spindle screw plastic material will be pushed backward, turning to a position that we have set in accordance with the volume of product to be in print. b. Mould Closing This step closes the plastic molds with moving plate moves toward the fixed plate. Pressure that occurs between the parts of the plastic mold is the maximum pressure plate moves to close the mold until the lock position. The process is called Clamping Force. The capacity of an injection machine is identified with a maximum pressure capability (Clamping Force). c. Forward Barrel [3] Is a step toward moving cylinder injection mold plastic to touch the mouth of the nozzle sprue with a certain pressure. This movement takes place after step and a general, hydraulic clamping. d. Cavity filling The next step is filling cavity. Ready formed plastic fluid driven by a screw (special threaded shaft) into the mold. In this stage the plastic has several phases, namely the filling, packing, and holding. e. Cooling After the mold cavities filled next step is to cool the liquid to solid plastic. This process is followed by a return they will screw into position. f. Mould open The next step is to open the mold. g. Ejection This step is the movement of drivers who are generally located in the middle of the plate to move and push the plastic mold ejector system. This is the last step of the cycle of the injection process. (Bid / multiple sources)

The AMF Development Process

AMF Bowling is a market-pull enterprise. AMF generally drives its development process with a market need and seeks out whatever technology is required to meet that need. Its competitive advantage arises from strong marketing channels, strong brand recognition, and a large installed base of equipment, not from any single proprietary technology. For this reason, the technology-push approach would not be appropriate. AMF products are assembled from components fabricated with relatively conventional processes such as molding, casting, and machining. So the AMF product is clearly not process intensive in the way a food product or a chemical is. Bowling equipment is rarely customized for a particular customer; most of the product development at AMF is aimed at new models of products, rather than at the customization of existing models. For this reason, the customization approach is also inappropriate. AMF chose to establish a development process similar to the generic process. The process proposed by the AMF engineering manager is illustrated in Exhibit 2-6. The representation of the development process used by AMF is a hybrid of those used in Exhibits 2-2 and 2-5, in that it shows the individual activities in the development process as well as the roles of the different development functions in those activities. Note that AMF defines the key functions in product development as marketing, engineering!design, manufacturing, quality assurance, purchasing, and customer service. Also note that there are three major milestones in the process: the project approval, the beginning of tooling fabrication, and the production release. Each of these milestones follows a major review. Although AMF established a standard process, its managers realized that this process would not necessarily be suitable in its entirety for all AMF products. For example, a few of AMF's new products are based on technology platforms. When platform products are developed, the team assumes the use of an existing technology platform during concept development. Nevertheless, the standard development process is the baseline from which a particular project plan begins.
References and Bibliography
Many current resources are available on the Internet via www.ulrich-eppinger.net Stage-gate product development processes have been dominant in manufacturing firms for the past 30 years. Cooper describes the modem stage-gate process and many of its enabling practices. Cooper, Robert G., Winning at New Products: Accelerating the Process from Idea to Launch, third edition, Perseus Books, Cambridge, MA, 2001.

additives

To improve one of the properties of a polymer, usually a polymer will be mixed with a material called additives. The function of these additives is to modify or improve certain properties in accordance with the wishes of the users, such as strength, color, water resistance, heat resistance, electrical resistance and others. Fillers are one of the additive to improve strength, hardness, abrasion resistance, dimensional stability. Plastisizers is additive to menambahn flexibility and lowers the level of soft polymers with glass transition temperaturenya. Molukuler Weight Additive has a low-power high interference. Secondary bond strength is reduced so as to make soft and flexible polymer. Commonly used in PVC, thin sheets, films, cylinders. Most polymers are affected by ultraviolet light (sunlight) and oxygen where it will weaken the influence of the main bonding polymers. Additive used is Carbon Black (soot). These additives absorb a high percentage of ultraviolet radiation. The trick is to add antioxidant polymers. The amount of color variation is needed in the plastic additives required Colorant (dye). This material is organic (Dyes) and inorganic (pigments). Selection of colorant depends on temperature and light in which the pigments dispersed in the polymer. Another additive is heat resistant to the flame retardants. These additives reduce the Flammability of these polymers. When the high temperature most polymers start to burn, burning Traffic depends on the composition of each polymer. Examples of these additives is Compound Chlorine, bromine and Phosphorus. Lubricants can be added to polymers to reduce friction during the manufacturing process. Other uses is to avoid the product sticking to the mold. Can also be a deterrent to the mutual attachment of polymers such as polymer-polymer thin film layer. (bid / multiple sources)

Product Development Process Flows

The product development process generally follows a structured flow of activity and information flow. This allows us to draw process flow diagrams illustrating the process, as shown in Exhibit 2-5. The generic process flow diagram depicts the process used to develop market-pull, technology-push, platform, process-intensive, customized, and high-risk products. Each product development phase (or stage) is followed by a review (or gate) to confirm that the phase is completed and to determine whether the project proceeds. Quick-build products enable a spiral product development process whereby detail design, prototyping, and test activities are repeated a number of times. The process flow diagram for development of complex systems shows the decomposition into parallel stages of work on the many subsystems and components. Once the product development process has been established within an organization, a process flow diagram is used to explain the process to everyone on the team. References and Bibliography Many current resources are available on the Internet via www.ulrich-eppinger.net Stage-gate product development processes have been dominant in manufacturing firms for the past 30 years. Cooper describes the modem stage-gate process and many of its enabling practices. Cooper, Robert G., Winning at New Products: Accelerating the Process from Idea to Launch, third edition, Perseus Books, Cambridge, MA, 2001.

Thermosetting

When the long chain molecules in the polymer related to the opposite (cross-linked) in rule 3 dimensions, the structure becomes one big mclekul with strong covalent bonds. Because during the polymerization and the formation of a network equipped with a permanent structure and could not return to its origin (irreversible), it is called Thermosetting. Thermosetting polymer has a glass transition temperature is not specific. Thermosett polymerization process is generally divided into two phases. The first stage is to separate polymer molecules into linear chains. The second stage is the cross-linking occurs with heat and pressure in the molding process. Due to the nature of the bond, the strength and hardness of thermosett not like thermoplastic, which is not affected by temperature and deformation. One type is termosett Phenolic, which is the result of reactions between Phenol and formaldehyde. A common characteristic of thermosets is a better mechanical properties, heat resistance, chemical resistance, electrical resistance and better dimensional stability. But if the temperature rises high, thermosetting polymers will burn, and burn. Some examples of polymers termosett are as follows: a. Alkyds Is a mixture of alcohol and acid, has the advantage of an excellent electrical insulator, resistant crushed and dimensional stability and low water absorption. b. Aminos Is the urea and melamine has the advantage depends on its composition. Generally amino hard and dense, resistant to abrasion and scratch resistance. Used commonly in furniture, toilet seat, handle and box-box meals. c. Epoxy Mechanical and electrical properties have excellent dimensional stability, a strong adhesive and heat and chemical resistant. Its application is for electronic components that require mechanical strength and good insulation .. d. Phenolics Although fragile and brittle Another advantage is the dimension of a stable, high resistance to heat, water, electrical and chemical. Usually used for handles, panels, telephone, glue material to stone grinding, electronic components, connectors. e. Polyester Have good mechanical properties, heat resistance and chemical resistance. Usually used for a boat, chairs, automotive body. f. Polyamides Good mechanical properties, scratch resistance, low friction, excellent electrical properties. Usually used for seals, valves, piston rings, part-part aerospace, high voltage connectors and safety equipment. g. Silicones Properties are generally good electrical properties, heat resistance and chemical materials. Commonly used for gaskets, seals, waterproof materials. (Bid / multiple sources)

Complex Systems

Larger-scale products such as automobiles and airplanes are complex systems comprised of many interacting subsystems and components. When developing complex systems, modifications to the generic product development process address a number of system-level issues. The concept development phase considers the architecture of the entire system, and multiple architectures may be considered as competing concepts for the overall system. The system-level design phase becomes critical. During this phase, the system is decomposed into subsystems and these further into many components. Teams are assigned to develop each component. Additional teams are assigned the special challenge of integrating components into the subsystems and these into the overall system. Detail design of the components is a highly parallel process in which the many development teams work at once, usually separately. Managing the network of interactions across the components and subsystems is the task of system engineering specialists of many kinds. The testing and refinement phase includes not only system integration, but also extensive testing and validation at all levels. References and Bibliography Many current resources are available on the Internet via www.ulrich-eppinger.net Stage-gate product development processes have been dominant in manufacturing firms for the past 30 years. Cooper describes the modem stage-gate process and many of its enabling practices. Cooper, Robert G., Winning at New Products: Accelerating the Process from Idea to Launch, third edition, Perseus Books, Cambridge, MA, 2001.

Examples of thermoplastics and their characteristics

Examples several types of thermoplastic with the characteristics.

- Poly Vinyl Chlorid (PVC)

Material properties:

a. Hard PVC

Thermoplastic, hard, rigid, transparent, capable of welding and glueing. Resistant to oil, acids, language, alcohol, but less resistant to solvents such as acetone, benzol, esters, temperature resistant up to 80 ° C.

b. Soft PVC

Greatly influenced by the amount of material given the softness softener that occur from such skin becomes rubbery. Clay, crack resistant, capable of being used to a temperature of 80 ° C, while the resistance to chemical solution under the hard PVC.

- Poly Styrol (PS)

Thermoplastics, such as glass, easy to be colored, at room temperature is relatively hard and rigid. Odorless and flammable, resistant to water, acids, bases, alcohols, oils but soluble in benzol, gasoline, acetone, ether. Can be glued and welded.

- Poly Methyl Metha Crylat (PMMA)

Thermoplastic, hard, brittle, scratch resistant, looks like glass, translucent, wear resistant, lightweight, easy to be colored, odorless, resistant to mild acids, alkalis, gasoline and oil, but not resistant to solvents.

- Poly Ethilen (PE)

Thermoplastic, soft material, clay, capable of working up to -40 ° C, low water absorption, resistant to acids, bases, solvents, alcohol, gasoline, water, oil, but do not hold HcIO and flammable.

- Polyamide (PA)

The name of the market is Nylon, thermoplastic properties, ductile at 2% -3% humidity, hard, brittle and stiff in the dry state. Color yellowish, opaque and easily colored. Able welded and glued also able to work on - ^ 40 ° C - 110 ° C.

- Polycarbonate (PC)

Thermoplastics, such as glass, capable of bouncer, capable of machining high, the shape does not change until heated at a temperature of 135 ° C, non-flammable, resistant to acids software (not concentrated), oil, gasoline and alcohol, are not resistant to alkali and solvents.

- Silicone (Si)

Heat resistant, have physical and chemical properties are very good, waterproof, capable diginakan at -90 ° C - 250 ° C, insulation material, material loading compactor for high humid areas.

- Polyurethane (PUR)

Is Elastomere, elastic like rubber, rub-resistant, scratch resistant, can be used at a temperature of -30 ° C - 80 ° C, resistant to oil, fuel, not acid resistant, alkali, solvents, hot water and flammable.

- Epoxydeharze

Elastomere, until light golden yellow color, hard and easy to work with machinery, resistant to weather changes and can be used up to 110 ° C, high electrical pengisolir, hold the soft acid, alkaline alcohol, oil, solvents, soluble in acetone and the Flammable .

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Quick-Build Products

For the development of some products, such as software and many electronics products, building and testing prototype models has become such a rapid process that the design-build-test cycle can be repeated many times. In fact, teams can take advantage of rapid iteration to achieve a more flexible and responsive product development process, sometimes called a spiral product development process. Following concept development in this process, the system-level design phase entails decomposition of the product into high-, medium-, and low-priority features. This is followed by several cycles of design, build, integrate, and test activities, beginning with the highest-priority items. This process takes advantage of the fast prototyping cycle by using the result of each cycle to learn how to modify the priorities for the next cycle. Customers may even be involved in the testing process after one or more cycles. When time or budget runs out, usually all of the high- and medium-priority features have been incorporated into the evolving product, and the low-priority features may be omitted until the next product generation.
References and Bibliography
Many current resources are available on the Internet via www.ulrich-eppinger.net
Stage-gate product development processes have been dominant in manufacturing firms for the past 30 years. Cooper describes the modem stage-gate process and many of its enabling practices.
Cooper, Robert G., Winning at New Products: Accelerating the Process from Idea to Launch, third edition, Perseus Books, Cambridge, MA, 2001.